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Project Title: |
The influence of processing speed and display resolution on perceptual expertise. |
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Investigator(s): |
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Department: |
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Source(s) of Funding: |
Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
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Start Date: |
07/2005 |
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Abstract: |
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A long-standing research interest of the PI has been in the description and explanation of expert performance as it occurs in natural, time-constrained perceptual-motor tasks of the type evident in ergonomic tasks such as driving and flying and sport tasks such as those involved in fast ball games. A major goal of this research is to understand the processes responsible for the expert advantage in such tasks, to understand how this advantage develops, and to then use this knowledge to facilitate that rate at which the skills of non-experts can be made more expert-like. One of the primary experimental approaches that has been used to examine the perceptual basis of expert anticipation in sport tasks is progressive temporal occlusion. The progressive temporal occlusion paradigm involves the editing of dynamic visual images (typically filmed from a player’s perspective) in order to provide selective vision to different time periods or events within the actions of an opposing player. Multiple occlusion points are characteristically used so as to form a progressive series of viewing periods (or time windows) within the event of interest. Significant improvement in prediction accuracy across successive occlusion points is taken as evidence for information pick-up from the events contained within the viewing period bounded by these occlusion points. Prediction accuracies superior to chance levels (i.e., superior to 50% in a two-choice prediction task) are also frequently used within this paradigm to provide confirmatory evidence for significant information pick-up. Studies using the progressive temporal occlusion paradigm (e.g., Abernethy & Russell, 1987; Goulet, Bard & Fleury, 1989; Jones & Miles, 1978; Wright, Pleasants & Gomez-Meza, 1990) have consistently demonstrated, across a variety of sports and a variety of different occlusion times, that not only are experts able to anticipate more effectively than novices but they are also capable of picking up useful anticipatory information from early events in their opponent’s movement pattern to which novices are not attuned. In racquet sports, for example, evidence from the temporal occlusion approach has been used to demonstrate that experts are more capable than less skilled players of picking up anticipatory information from the kinematics of events occurring early in the opponent’s hitting action, such as the motion of the arm holding the racquet (Abernethy, Gill, Parks & Packer, 2001; Abernethy & Russell, 1987; Buckolz, Prapavesis & Fairs, 1988; Goulet et al., 1989). These differences may, or may not, be accompanied by differences in visual search patterns, as determined through concurrent measurement of eye movements (or, more strictly, central vision fixation locations). Despite the widespread usage of the temporal occlusion paradigm there are nevertheless some assumptions within both the way the paradigm is used, and the inferences that are drawn from it, that warrant greater scrutiny than has currently been the case. The first, largely methodological issue, is that the typical progressive temporal occlusion technique cannot discriminate between anticipatory information pick-up and overall processing speed as possible explanations of the expert advantage. While superior expert performance on temporal occlusion tasks is generally assumed to be a consequence of earlier information pick-up by experts it remains possible that a generic information processing speed advantage for experts could produce similar findings. Two experiments (Exps 1 & 2) are proposed - the first manipulating the viewing period and the second the display speed - to examine this issue directly. A second issue is that, even with concurrent eye movement recording, it is currently impossible to determine the relative roles of central (focal) and peripheral (ambient) vision in expert perception and in creating the expert advantage. Two additional experiments are proposed that manipulate factors (viz., display resolution, Exp 3; and display luminance, Exp 4) that are known to differentially affect focal and ambient vision to examine this issue. The overall purpose of the project is therefore to extend the existing temporal occlusion methodology to more fully understand the root causes of the expert advantage on anticipatory tasks. |
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Project Title: |
The relationship between expert perception, task constraints and selective information pick-up |
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Investigator(s): |
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Department: |
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Source(s) of Funding: |
Competitive Earmarked Research Grants (CERG) |
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Start Date: |
01/2006 |
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Abstract: |
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To enhance understanding of some fundamental aspects of expert perception. More specifically, the experiments to be undertaken aim to : (1) test the efficacy and generality of the constraints-attunement hypothesis of expertise, developed by Vicente and Wang (1998) to explain expertise in memory tasks, and assess its applicability to another set of tasks in which robust expertise effects have been observed - tasks involving dynamic, predictive behaviour; (2) search for, and identify, specific invariants for the perception and prediction of human movement to which only experts are attuned; (3) to examine, using fMRI techniques, in conjunction with behavioural and biomechanical data, the brain activity underpinning expert perception in a natural task environment so that a process-based account of perceptual expertise can be built; (4) differentiate, as best as is possible, expertise effects from those due to experience. |
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List of Research Outputs |
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Abernethy
A.B., Maxwell
J.P., Masters R.S.W., van der Kamp G.J. and Jackson R.C., Attentional Processes in
Skill Learning and Expert Performance, In: G. Tenenbaum & R.C. Eklund
(Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (3rd Ed.). |
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Abernethy
A.B., Maxwell
J.P., Jackson R.C. and Masters R.S.W., Cognition and skill in
sport. , In: In F.T. Durso (Ed.), R. Nickerson, S. Dumais, S. Lewandowsky,
& T. Perfect (Assoc.Eds.), Handbook of Applied Cognition (2nd ed.).
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Abernethy A.B., Maxwell J.P., Jackson R.C. and Masters R.S.W., Cognition and skill in sport, In: F. Durso, R. Nickerson, S. Dumais, S. Lewandowsky, & T. Perfect , Handbook of Applied Cognition (2nd Ed.). . Wiley, 2007, 333-359. |
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Abernethy
A.B., Developing expert ‘game sense’ and
decision-making in players, Invited presentation to the |
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Abernethy A.B., Editorial Advisory Board Member, Journal of Sports Sciences 2006-2007. 2006. |
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Abernethy A.B., Editorial Board Member, Current Psychology of Cognition 2006-2007. 2006. |
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Abernethy A.B., Raynor A., Hoy E. and Jackson R.C., Loading a movement makes it easier to predict: An experimental test of the relationship between display kinematics, anticipation and expertise.” , Proceedings of the annual Conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, San Diego. June, 2007. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2007, 29 (Suppl.): S17. |
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Abernethy A.B., Raynor A.J., Hoy E. and Jackson R.C., Loading a movement makes it easier to predict: An experimental test of the relationship between display kinematics, anticipation and expertise, North American Society for Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity. 2007. |
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Abernethy A.B. and Côté J., Nurturing the development of a comprehensive model of expertise: A brief commentary on Ericsson (2006) and Klissouras, Gelados & Koskolou (2006)., International Journal of Sport Psychology. 2007, 38: 68-72. |
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Abernethy
A.B., Skill acquisition research into
practice: The challenge of developing evidence based approaches to the
training of perceptual-motor skills, Invited presentation at the 2nd
Conference of the Australian Association for Exercise and Sport Science and
the 4th Sports Dietitians Australia Update – From Research to Practice II. |
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Abernethy A.B., Skill acquisition research into practice: The challenge of developing evidence-based approaches to the training of perceptual-motor skills. , In: In A Burnett, D. Bishop, & A. Meade (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd Australian Association for Exercise and Sports Science Conference and the 4th Sports Dietitians Australia Update – From Research to Practice II . Sydney, The Australian Association for Exercise and Sports Science, 2006. |
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Abernethy A.B., The how and why of sporting expertise: Implications from the study of experts to skill acquisition in cricket. , Sport Health. 2007, 25(2): 10-11. |
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Abernethy
A.B., The how and why of sporting expertise;
Implications from the study of experts to skill acquisition in cricket., Invited
keynote presentation to the 2007 Cricket |
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Côté J., Baker J. and Abernethy A.B., Practice and play in
the development of sport expertise., In: In G. Tenenbaum & R.C. Eklund
(Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (3rd ed.). |
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Côté J., MacDonald D., Baker J. and Abernethy A.B., When “where” is more important than “when”: Birthplace and birthdate effects on the achievement of sporting expertise. , Journal of Sports Sciences. 2006, 24: 1065-1073. |
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Farrow D. and Abernethy A.B., Wahrnehmung von expertinnen und experten im sport: Einige kernfragen und -probleme [Expert perception in sport: Some key questions and issues]. , In: In Strauß, B., Tietjens, M., & Hagemann, N. (Eds.), Psychologie der sportlichen Höchstleistung [Psychology of Peak Performance in Sport]. . Göttingen, Hogrefe, 2007. |
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Jackson R.C., Abernethy A.B. and Wernhart S., An expert (dis)advantage in perceptual skill? Susceptibility to deception when viewing normal and blurred motion., Proceedings of the annual Conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, San Diego. June, 2007. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2007, 29 (Suppl.): S20. |
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Jackson R.C., Abernethy A.B. and Wernhart S., An expert (dis)advantage in perceptual skill? Susceptibility to deception when viewing normal and blurred motion., North American Society for Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity. 2007. |
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Müller S. and Abernethy A.B., Batting with occluded vision: An in-situ examination of the information pick-up and interceptive skills of high and low skilled cricket batsmen., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2006, 9: 446-458. |
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Müller S., Abernethy A.B. and Farrow D., How do world-class cricket batsmen anticipate a bowler’s intention?, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 2006, 59: 2162-2186. |
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Researcher
: Cerin E |
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Project Title: |
Development of an electronic diary to measure physical activity patterns and time use |
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Investigator(s): |
Cerin E |
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Department: |
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Source(s) of Funding: |
Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
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Start Date: |
10/2006 |
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Abstract: |
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Engagement in physical activity is important for the prevention and management of disabling and socially costly diseases, including type II diabetes, cardiovascular disease, osteoarthritis and breast and colon cancer (Blair et al., 1994). To reliably describe dose-response relationships between physical activity and health outcomes and to better understand the personal, social and environmental determinants of participation, it is essential to obtain accurate measures of the relevant physical activity behaviours. Self-report instruments are the most common measure of physical activity, especially, in population-based research (Matthews, 2002). They are inexpensive, easy to administer and able to capture quantitative (intensity, duration, frequency of physical activity) and qualitative information (type and context). Physical activity diaries are considered to be the most accurate self-report technique. When compared to global self-reports (brief measures of habitual activity patterns) and recall questionnaires (measures that quantify physical activity patterns in the recent past), the advantages of diaries are that they provide rich detail about the diverse range, settings, duration and temporal patterns of physical activities that individuals encounter in their daily lives. Additionally, they minimize cognitive difficulties of recalling past physical activity behaviours. Although diaries can provide detailed information on physical activity behaviour, they have limitations. For instance, scoring such diaries (comprising activity categorisation of open-ended responses and assignment of metabolic rates to reported activity) is a very expensive and labour-intensive activity. Additionally, the reliability and validity of the measure can be negatively affected by the scorers’ subjective interpretations of the participants’ responses. This has major implications for the study of the relationships between physical activity and health outcomes, where measurement error remains a major impediment to further progress (Blair et al., 1994; Matthews, 2002). The aim of this project is to overcome the above limitations of physical activity diaries by developing an electronic diary system (using Personal Digital Assistants – PDAs; ‘Palm-top’ computers), which would allow individuals to record physical activity patterns (type, context, duration) using a flexible set of pre-defined categories of physical activity and automatically associate a reported physical activity with its approximate metabolic rate (energy expenditure). The project will consist of two stages. The development stage will involve the construction of a PDA-compatible, user-friendly interactive program that would allow participants to record their physical activity and inactivity patterns (type, context and duration). The validation stage will examine the reliability and validity of the electronic diary system. |
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Project Title: |
Development and
validation of measures to study the effects of the built environment on
walking in |
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Investigator(s): |
Cerin E, Macfarlane DJ, Sit HP, |
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Department: |
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Source(s) of Funding: |
Health and Health Services Research Fund - Full Grants |
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Start Date: |
10/2006 |
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Abstract: |
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To develop/adapt and validate interviewer-administered self-report measures of (a) physical environmental exposure factors shown to be related to walking (residential density, diversity of and access to destinations, aesthetics, traffic, crime, walking infrastructure, street connvectivity, based on the short form of the Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale); (b) walking within and outside the neighbourhood (based on the RESIDE's Neighbourhood Physical Activity Questionnaire) for a senior Chinese-speaking population. |
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List of Research Outputs |
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Brown P., Cerin E. and Warner-Smith P., The
"Work-Life Tension" project: A perspective on how dual-earner
parents experience time in |
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Brown P., Warner-Smith P. and Cerin E., The 'Work-Life Tension'
project - Investigating experiences of time among dual-earner parents in |
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Brown P., Cerin E. and Warner-Smith P., Using
the experience sampling method to compare time use among working parents in
Australia, 28th Annual Conference on Time Use Research. |
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Cerin E., Sit H.P., Chan W.M., Tham M.K., Cheung M.C. and Ho D.S.Y., A pilot study on the associations between the built environment and walking in senior residents of Hong Kong, 2nd International Symposium on Healthy Aging. 2007. |
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Cerin E., Sit H.P., Chan W.M., Tham M.K., Cheung M.C. and Ho D.S.Y., A study on the associations between the built environment and walking in senior residents of Hong Kong: Preliminary findings, 6th Annual Meeting of the International Society of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, Oslo, Norway. 2007. |
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Cerin
E., Applications of statistical methods to
the study of environment-physical activity relationships for the
'uninitiated', Active Living Research 2007, |
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Cerin E., Leslie E., du Toit L., Owen N. and Frank L.D., Destinations that matter: Associations with walking for transport, Health & Place. 2007, 13: 713-724. |
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Cerin
E., Macfarlane
D.J., Ko H.H. and Chan K.C.A.,
Measuring perceived neighbourhood walkability in |
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Cerin E., Vandelanotte C., De Bourdeaudhuij I. and Brug J., Moderators and mediators of differential effectiveness of simultaneous and sequential computer-tailored fat intake interventions, 6th Annual Meeting of the International Society of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity. 2007. |
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Cerin E., Saelens B.E., Sallis J.F. and Frank L.D., Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale: Validity And Development Of A Short Form, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2006, 38: 1882-1691. |
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Cerin
E., Physical activity and the built
environment: Evidence from the NQLS and PLACE studies, Frontiers in
Biomedical Research, |
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Cerin E., Owen N., Leslie E. and Sugiyama T., Psychosocial and environmental factors as potential mediators of the associations between socio-economic status and leisure-time physical activity, 6th Annual Meeting of the International Society of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, Oslo, Norway. 2007. |
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Cerin
E., Recommended versus Current Practice in
Intervening Variable Analyses in Studies of Physical Activity, |
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Cerin
E., Vandelanotte C., Leslie E. and Owen N.,
Relationships between proximity to recreational facilities and leisure-time
physical activity: An analysis of socio-demographic moderators, 9th
International Congress of Behavioral Medicine, |
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Cerin
E. and Leslie E., Socio-economic status and
perceived barriers to physical activity, Active Living Research 2007, |
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Healy G., Owen N., Salmon J., Cerin E. and Dunstan D., Accelerometer-determined physical activity and blood glucose in Australian adults, 9th International Congress of Behavioral Medicine, Bangkok, Thailand. 2006. |
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Healy G., Owen N., Salmon J., Cerin E. and Dunstan D., Every step counts - Objectively determined physical activity and blood glucose in Australian adults., Annual Queensland Health & Medical Scientific Meeting, Brisbane, Australia. 2006. |
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Healy G., Dunstan D., Salmon J., Cerin E. and Owen N., Prolonged
bouts of sedentary time are associated with percent body-fat, independent of
total sedentary time, |
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Healy G., Dunstan D., Salmon J., Cerin E., Shaw J., Zimmet P. and Owen N., Sedentary bouts: Associations with components of the metabolic syndrome, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia. 2007. |
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Healy G.N., Dunstan D.W., Salmon J., Cerin E., Zimmet P.Z., Shaw J.E. and Owen N., Objectively measured light-intensity physical activity is independently associated with 2-hr plasma glucose, Diabetes Care. 2007, 10: 1384-1389. |
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Leslie E., Owen N., Cerin E. and du Toit L., Measuring walkability of local communities using Geographic Information Systems data, 7th International Conference on Walking and Livable Communities: Walk 21. 2006. |
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Leslie E., McCrea R., Cerin E. and Stimson R., Regional variations in walking for different purposes: The South East Queensland Quality of Life Study, Environment & Behavior. 2007, 39(4): 557-577. |
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Lynch B.M., Cerin E., Owen N. and Aitken J.F., Associations of leisure-time physical activity with quality of life in a large, population-based sample of colorectal cancer survivors, Cancer Causes Control. 2007, 18: 735-742. |
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Merom D., Cerin E., Phongsavan P.H. and Bauman A., Promoting walking with pedometers in the community - does the environment matter?, Post-satellite Symposium of the 6th Annual Meeting of the International Society of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, Oslo, Norway. 2007. |
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Owen N., Sugiyama T., Leslie E., Cerin E., Bauman A. and Coffee N.,
Community walkability attributes are also bicycle-friendly attributes, Thinking
on Two Wheels. 3rd International Cycling Conference, |
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Proper K., Cerin E., Brown W. and Owen N., Sitting time and socio-economic differences in overweight and obesity, 9th International Congress of Behavioral Medicine, Bangkok, Thailand. 2006. |
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Vandelanotte C., Cerin E. and |
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Vandelanotte C., Cerin E. and |
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Researcher
: Chan KCA |
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List of Research Outputs |
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Cerin
E., Macfarlane D.J., Ko H.H. and Chan K.C.A., Measuring
perceived neighbourhood walkability in |
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Researcher
: Chow CF |
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List of Research Outputs |
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Maxwell
J.P., |
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List of Research Outputs |
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Chu Y.W., "The pattern of Physical Activity in Children" (PhD thesis), The University of Hong Kong, 2007. |
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Project Title: |
Attentional demands of anticipation in perceptual skills. |
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Investigator(s): |
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Department: |
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Source(s) of Funding: |
Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
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Start Date: |
07/2005 |
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Abstract: |
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One of the defining characteristics of expertise in skills such as driving a car or returning a tennis serve is the ability to anticipate events from advance visual cues. An extensive body of research has focused on documenting the nature of differences between expert and less-skilled performers in these skills (e.g., Abernethy, Wood, & Parks, 1999; Jackson & Gudgeon, 2004; Poulter, Jackson, Wann, & Berry, under review) and has generated a rich body of behavioural data as well as helping to delineate the visual cues upon which skilled anticipation is based. However, it has not furthered our understanding of the attentional processes underlying skilled anticipation. The importance of this question relates to a growing body of literature which indicates that the tendency for individuals to attend to the step-by-step processes that normally run off automatically is one of the causes of skill failure under stress (Beilock & Carr, 2001). The first step in ascertaining whether a similar process could cause skill failure in perceptual-based anticipatory skills is to gain an understanding of the attentional demands of skilled anticipation. This will also help better inform the debate over the merits of less directive approaches to perceptual training (Farrow & Abernethy, 2002; Jackson, 2003; Jackson & Farrow, under review). To date, only two studies have examined the attentional demands of anticipation. These have produced equivocal findings. On the one hand, Goulet, Bard, and Fleury (1992) found that a concurrent secondary task negatively affected the anticipatory performance of both experts and novices. More recently, Rowe and McKenna (2001) found that performing a concurrent random letter generation task was more detrimental to the anticipatory performance of novice tennis players than their more-skilled counterparts. A limitation of the Rowe and McKenna study is that novice and expert performers responded differently to the secondary task instructions, which may have confounded results. Specifically, there was a tendency for novices to generate more letters than the experts. In addition, neither of these studies used the temporal or spatial / cue occlusion techniques that have proven to be reliable discriminators of expert and novice anticipation (e.g., Abernethy, Gill, Parks, & Packer, 2001). Accordingly, the primary objective of the proposed basic research is to assess the attentional demands associated with performance on temporal and cue occlusion anticipation tests. References not included in Section V: Abernethy, B., Gill, D., Parks, S. L., & Packer, S. T. (2001). Expertise and the perception of kinematic and situational probability information. Perception, 30, 233-252. Abernethy, B., Wood, J. M., & Parks, S. (1999). Can the anticipatory skills of experts be learned by novices? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70, 313-318. Beilock, S. L., & Carr, T. H. (2001). On the fragility of skilled performance: What governs choking under pressure? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 701-725. Farrow, D., & Abernethy, B. (2002). Can anticipatory skills be learned through implicit video-based perceptual training? Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 471-485. Goulet, C., Bard, C., & Fleury, M. (1989). Expertise differences in preparing to return a tennis serve: A visual information processing approach. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11, 382-398. Rowe, R. M., & McKenna, F. P. (2001). Skilled anticipation in real-world tasks: Measurement of attentional demands in the domain of tennis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7, 60-67. |
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Project Title: |
Verbal Overshadowing in the Recognition of Motion |
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Investigator(s): |
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Department: |
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Source(s) of Funding: |
Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
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Start Date: |
04/2007 |
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Abstract: |
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‘Verbal overshadowing’ refers to the
phenomenon in which describing a previously seen complex stimulus (e.g., a
picture of a face) impairs later recognition of that stimulus (Schooler &
Engstler-Schooler, 1990). In the original study, participants viewed an image
of a face and half were then asked to give a detailed description of the face
they had viewed. When subsequently given a forced-choice recognition test,
participants who had described the face were less accurate at picking out the
studied face from other visually similar distracter stimuli. By contrast,
visualizing the previously studied face did not impair recognition. It has
subsequently been shown that verbalization also impairs insight problem
solving (Schooler, Ohlsson, & Brooks, 1993), affective judgments (Wilson
& Schooler, 1991), and memory for taste (Melcher & Schooler, 1996). While
the verbal overshadowing effect is now well established, it has been limited
to recognising stimuli in which kinematic information is absent or
irrelevant. For example, most researchers have used still images during the
study and test phases, and those using video presentations during the study
phase (e.g., Macrae & Lewis, 2002) have used an identification task
(e.g., face recognition) in which movement-related information is absent. A
key issue is whether the findings apply to skills in which performance is based
on the ability to perceive information contained within the movement
kinematics. Early evidence for the importance of motion for making perceptual
judgments was evident in studies showing that observers could discriminate
between different weights being lifted (Runeson & Frykholm, 1981) and the
gender of walkers (Cutting et al., 1978) simply by viewing ‘point-light’
displays in which the relative motion of only the joint centres could be
seen. In the domain of sport, there is now considerable evidence that the
ability to anticipate the actions of others similarly relies on the
perception of advance kinematic information (e.g., Abernethy et al., 2001).
Thus, skilled performers are better at recalling and recognising patterns of
movement from within their domain of expertise. In explaining the verbal
overshadowing effect, it has been suggested that the act of describing a
complex stimulus causes participants to focus on easy-to-verbalise local
information (e.g., the specific features of a face) rather than the difficult-to-verbalise
global information (e.g., the way in which the features of a face are
configured). In support, it is well established that face recognition is
enhanced when the image is processed in a holistic manner emphasising
configural rather than featural information (Tanaka, 1993). In contrast,
there is evidence that the verbal overshadowing effect is attenuated when the
test stimuli have distinctive features that better lend themselves to
featural processing (Wickham & Swift, 2006). Further evidence that it is
the change in processing orientation rather than verbalization per se that
underlies the verbal overshadowing effect came from a study by Macrae and
Lewis (2002). In the experiment, participants were shown a 30-s video
depicting a simulated bank robbery. After watching the video, the processing
orientation of the participants was manipulated by having them report either
the global or local identity of a series of Navon (1977) letters (e.g., a
large letter ‘T’ composed of Ss), or read aloud (the neutral condition) for
10 minutes. Macrae and Lewis found that participants’ ability to recognise
the face of the bank robber was significantly impaired in the local
processing condition (30%), and enhanced in the global processing condition
(83%) relative to the neutral processing condition (60%). A second key issue,
therefore, is whether processing orientation can enhance as well as impair
the recognition of kinematic information. The immediate purpose of the
proposed studies is to examine whether the verbal overshadowing effect
generalises to stimuli for which recognition relies upon the perception of
kinematic information. The wider purpose of the research is to understand
better the role of memory function and processing orientation in skills supported
by motion perception. References Abernethy, B., Gill, D., Parks, S. L., &
Packer, S. T. (2001). Expertise and the perception of kinematic and
situational probability information. Perception, 30, 233-252. Cutting, J. E.,
Proffitt, D. R., & Kozlowski, L. T. (1978). A biomechanical invariant for
gait perception. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and
Performance, 4, 356-372. Macrae, C. N., & Lewis, H. L. (2002). Do I know
you? Processing orientation and face recognition. Psychological Science,
13(2), 194-196. Melcher, J. M., & Schooler, J. W. (1996). The
misremembrance of wines past: Verbal and perceptual expertise differentially
mediate verbal overshadowing of taste memory. Journal of Memory and Language,
35, 231-245. Navon, D. (1977). |
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List of Research Outputs |
|
Abernethy
A.B., Maxwell J.P., Masters R.S.W., van der Kamp G.J. and Jackson R.C., Attentional Processes
in Skill Learning and Expert Performance, In: G. Tenenbaum & R.C. Eklund
(Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (3rd Ed.). |
|
Abernethy
A.B., Maxwell J.P., Jackson R.C. and Masters R.S.W., Cognition and skill in
sport. , In: In F.T. Durso (Ed.), R. Nickerson, S. Dumais, S. Lewandowsky,
& T. Perfect (Assoc.Eds.), Handbook of Applied Cognition (2nd ed.).
|
|
Abernethy A.B., Maxwell J.P., Jackson R.C. and Masters R.S.W., Cognition and skill in sport, In: F. Durso, R. Nickerson, S. Dumais, S. Lewandowsky, & T. Perfect , Handbook of Applied Cognition (2nd Ed.). . Wiley, 2007, 333-359. |
|
Abernethy A.B., Raynor A., Hoy E. and Jackson R.C., Loading a movement makes it easier to predict: An experimental test of the relationship between display kinematics, anticipation and expertise.” , Proceedings of the annual Conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, San Diego. June, 2007. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2007, 29 (Suppl.): S17. |
|
Abernethy A.B., Raynor A.J., Hoy E. and Jackson R.C., Loading a movement makes it easier to predict: An experimental test of the relationship between display kinematics, anticipation and expertise, North American Society for Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity. 2007. |
|
Jackson R.C., Abernethy A.B. and Wernhart S., An expert (dis)advantage in perceptual skill? Susceptibility to deception when viewing normal and blurred motion., Proceedings of the annual Conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, San Diego. June, 2007. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2007, 29 (Suppl.): S20. |
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Jackson R.C., Abernethy A.B. and Wernhart S., An expert (dis)advantage in perceptual skill? Susceptibility to deception when viewing normal and blurred motion., North American Society for Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity. 2007. |
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Jackson R.C., International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2007. |
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Jackson R.C., Reflections on the Athens Paralympics: Working with wheelchair rugby, Sport and Exercise Psychology Review. The British Psychological Society, 2006, 2: 41-45. |
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Jackson R.C. and Masters R.S.W., Ritualised behaviors in skilled performance are a function of hazard precaution, Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 2007, 29: 621-622. |
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Masters R.S.W., van der Kamp G.J. and Jackson R.C., Imperceptibly off-centre goalkeepers influence penalty-kick direction in soccer, Psychological Science. 2007, 18: 222-223. |
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Masters R.S.W. and Jackson R.C., Marginally perceptible thresholds of awareness in anticipation of service direction in tennis, In: Farrow D, Research Reports. Australian Institute of Sport, 2007. |
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Wright M.J. and Jackson R.C., Brain regions concerned with perceptual skills in tennis: An fMRI study, International Journal of Psychophysiology. 2007, 63: 214-220. |
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Researcher
: Lam WK |
|
List of Research Outputs |
|
Maxwell
J.P., Masters R.S.W. and Lam W.K., Differential distribution
of attentional resources during novel task performance following errorless
and errorful learning: Evidence from probe reaction times. , Proceedings
of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences Annual Conference, |
|
Researcher
: Macfarlane DJ |
|
Project Title: |
Enhancing elite performance by development of a biofeedback instrumentation system |
|
Investigator(s): |
Macfarlane DJ |
|
Department: |
|
|
Source(s) of Funding: |
Small Project Funding |
|
Start Date: |
01/2006 |
|
Abstract: |
|
In order for an any athlete to try to maximize his/her performance it is essential that the athlete receives appropriate and meaningful feedback. Often this feedback is based purely on the coach’s subjective assessment of the athlete’s performance during visual observations in training or competition (Shakespear, 1980). Such feedback is temporally limited and relies heavily on both the recall ability of the coach and athlete, although it can be aided by video-recording, which itself has the limitation of being time-consuming and somewhat cumbersome for the coach to operate in an active coaching environment. A more ideal coaching tool is to develop an instrumented data-acquisition system based around an ergometer that accurately simulates the athletic event, which not only incorporates on-line data recording as well as providing instantaneous “biofeedback” to the coach/athlete, but can also provide detailed post-hoc analysis. This type of objective assessment using empirically acquired data has the potential to substantially aid the development of sub-elite athletes as well as to fine-tuning the peak performances of elite athletes, but requires the development of specialist hardware and software. This proposal is to extend the development of an existing data-acquisition system (very early development work funded by a HKU new staff member grant in 1994, which was then substantially revised with new hardware/software using an externally funded grant in 2003). In the sport of rowing it is commonly regarded that the leg-drive phase of the rowing stroke is critical to the development of power since it contributes the largest component towards boat velocity (Lamb, 1989). However, certain issues on the leg-drive still remain unanswered within the international community, with a recent expert review of the area (Soper & Hume, 2004) concluding that future research should focus on “the influence of foot-stretcher positions on rowing performance” and “can coaches or selectors use force application profiles to reliably or validly predict a rowers performance”. These are clearly two key research questions that need to be investigated by the international research community in relation to expert rowing performance. From these critical comments we propose to investigate (i) what is the most ideal position of the feet during this leg-drive phase, and (ii) whether the force applied to the seat (owing to the lifting-action of the leg-drive) would serve as a simple and reliable proxy of an efficient rowing technique (coaches often refer to this as the rowers ability to “hang”). This current proposal is to incorporate the addition of specialist hardware and software to an existing ergometer to allow for detailed investigations on the effects of how the position of the foot-stretcher can influence power development, and to determine if the force applied to the seat was an acceptable proxy for effective leg drive and power development using an instrumented ergometer system designed to provide real-time biofeedback to the coach and athlete. |
|
List of Research Outputs |
|
Cerin
E., Macfarlane D.J., Ko
H.H. and Chan K.C.A., Measuring
perceived neighbourhood walkability in |
|
Chou K.L., Macfarlane D.J., Chi I. and Cheng Y.H., Physical exercise in Chinese older adults: A transtheoretical model, Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research. 2006, 11: 114-131. |
|
Deng
H., Thomas G.N., Macfarlane D.J., Chou K.L., Cheung B.M.Y., McGhee S.M. and Lam T.H., Association between cigarette
smoking and plasma urate level in elderly Chinese (abstract and poster
presentation), 5th Annual Conference of the International Society for
the Prevention of Tobacco Induced Disease, 24-26 November 2006, Hong Kong.
|
|
Deng H., Thomas G.N., Macfarlane D.J., Chou K.L., Cheung B.M.Y., Chi I., McGhee S.M. and Lam T.H., Validity of the international physical activity questionnaire short form (abstract), Journal of the Hong Kong College of Cardiology. 2006, 14: 78. |
|
Lau H.L., Sit H.P. and Macfarlane D.J., Physical activity participation in relation to body image, self-concept, and self-esteem of individuals with and without disabilities, 9th International Symposium of Asian Society for Adapted Physical Education and Exercise. 2006. |
|
Macfarlane D.J., An Analysis of the Global Trends in the Fitness of Children & Adolescents, American College of Sports Medicine Annual Meeting, New Orleans. 2007. |
|
Macfarlane D.J., Lee C.Y.C., Ho Y.K.H., Chan K.L. and Chan D., Convergent validity of six methods to assess physical activity in daily life, Journal of Applied Physiology. 2006, 101: 1328-1334. |
|
Macfarlane D.J., Evidence-based advice on weight reduction for teams – the good and bad news, HKASMSS/AFSM Team Physician Development Course. 2007. |
|
Macfarlane D.J., Lee C.Y.C., Ho E.Y.K., Chan K.L. and Chan D.T.S., Reliability and Validity of the Chinese version of IPAQ (short, last 7 days), Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2007, 10: 45-51. |
|
Macfarlane
D.J. and Tomkinson G.R., The evolution and
variability in fitness performance of Asian children and adolescents. , In:
Tomkinson, G. and Olds, T., The Secular Changes of Children’s Fitness.
|
|
Macfarlane D.J., Lee C.Y.C., Ho E.Y.K., Chan K.L. and Chan D.T.S., Validity and reliability of three bioelectric impedance monitors in young Chinese adults, Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2007, 16: 66-73. |
|
Macfarlane D.J., Taylor L.H. and Cuddihy T.F., Very short intermittent vs continuous bouts of activity in sedentary adults, Preventive Medicine. 2006, 43: 332-336. |
|
Thomas G.N., Cheung B.M.Y., Ho D.S.Y., Macfarlane D.J., Deng H., McGhee S.M., Woo J., Lam T.H. and Tomlinson B., Overview of dietary influences on atherosclerotic vascular disease: Epidemiology and prevention, Cardiovascular & Hematological Disorders Drug Targets. 2007, 7: 87-97. |
|
Researcher
: Masters RSW |
|
Project Title: |
Enhancing motor skills through instructional manipulations: is the learner paying attention? |
|
Investigator(s): |
Masters RSW, Maxwell JP |
|
Department: |
|
|
Source(s) of Funding: |
Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
|
Start Date: |
02/2004 |
|
Abstract: |
|
To conduct a test of the competing theories; to ascertain the validity of external/internal feedback; to establish the process that leads to enhanced performance. |
|
Project Title: |
Brief periods of implicit motor learning: Performance advantages or disadvantages? |
|
Investigator(s): |
Masters RSW |
|
Department: |
|
|
Source(s) of Funding: |
Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
|
Start Date: |
06/2005 |
|
Abstract: |
|
A number of advantages have been shown
for implicit motor learning (see Masters & Maxwell, 2004 for a recent
review). These advantages include robustness under (1) secondary task loading
(multi-tasking) (2) psychological stress and (3) potentially, physiological
stress. Maxwell, Masters, Kerr, and Weedon (2001) suggested that an effective
means by which to cause implicit motor learning is to reduce learning errors.
They showed that participants learning to play golf in an errorless condition
committed significantly fewer errors throughout learning than those in an
errorful condition. Not only was performance superior in retention, but
imposition of a secondary cognitive load resulted in performance deterioration
for errorful learners but not errorless learners. Paradoxically, verbal
recall in both conditions was not different, with participants reporting
substantial amounts of task relevant declarative information. Access to task
relevant knowledge (or metaknowledge) is not expected in implicit learning.
Upon closer inspection of their data, Maxwell et al found that error
commission in the errorless condition occurred with considerably greater
frequency from putting distances greater than or equal to |
|
Project Title: |
Declarative and nondeclarative components of an observationally acquired motor act. |
|
Investigator(s): |
Masters RSW, Patil NG, Lo CY |
|
Department: |
|
|
Source(s) of Funding: |
Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
|
Start Date: |
08/2006 |
|
Abstract: |
|
Traditional theories of motor learning postulate that skills are initially acquired explicitly via cognitive processing, which is verbally or declaratively based, and become automated as learning proceeds (Anderson, 1987; Fitts & Posner, 1967). Once skilled, the performer is said to execute complex responses with minimal attention to the specific ‘declarative’ knowledge involved, because the underlying information processing has become ‘procedural’ (Salmoni, 1989). It is now widely acknowledged that in certain circumstances declarative knowledge can be a hindrance to the expert performer. Numerous studies have, for example, concluded that verbal instructions to provide explicit, declarative knowledge do not optimise skill acquisition and, in some cases, may degrade performance and transfer (e.g., Baumeister, 1984; Hardy, Mullen & Jones, 1996; Hodges & Lee, 1999). The verbal knowledge provided by instructions may act to decrease performance by making the actor aware of information about their movements that is normally processed more efficiently outside working memory (Masters, Law & Maxwell, 2002; Masters & Maxwell, 2004). A growing literature describes and validates techniques which encourage nondeclarative (implicit) motor learning by reducing the amount of explicit, declarative movement information accessible to working memory during skill acquisition (e.g., dual-task learning - Masters, 1992; Hardy et al, 1996; MacMahon & Masters, 2003; feedback manipulation - Masters, Maxwell & Eves, 2001; Maxwell, Masters & Eves, 2003; errorless learning - Maxwell, Masters, Kerr & Weedon, 2001; analogy learning - Masters, 2000; Liao & Masters, 2001). These techniques have demonstrated that motor skills can be learned in such a way that the performer has minimal access to explicit, declarative knowledge about how to perform the task, with neither psychological stress to perform well nor the imposition of a secondary task load resulting in degradation of the motor skill. No work has considered the impact of traditional observational methods of learning on the extent of declarative and nondeclarative knowledge accrual. Observational learning refers to a participant gaining information by watching attentively while the task-to-be-learned is carried out. Observational learning has been shown to result in some characteristics of non-declarative learning (Vinter & Perruchet, 2002); however, it has been shown that participants can nevertheless access explicit, declarative knowledge about the ‘key’ features of the task (Howard, Mutter & Howard, 1992; Willingham, 1999). The proposed study will examine a variety of observational learning methods in a surgical suturing and knot-tying task. Technical skills training in surgery generally relies on a Halstedian apprenticeship model, in which initial observation of the master surgeon is followed by participation in a surgical procedure under supervision (Wanzel et al, 2002). |
|
List of Research Outputs |
|
Abernethy
A.B., Maxwell J.P., Masters R.S.W., van der Kamp G.J. and Jackson R.C., Attentional Processes in
Skill Learning and Expert Performance, In: G. Tenenbaum & R.C. Eklund
(Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (3rd Ed.). |
|
Abernethy
A.B., Maxwell J.P., Jackson R.C. and Masters R.S.W., Cognition and skill
in sport. , In: In F.T. Durso (Ed.), R. Nickerson, S. Dumais, S. Lewandowsky,
& T. Perfect (Assoc.Eds.), Handbook of Applied Cognition (2nd ed.).
|
|
Abernethy A.B., Maxwell J.P., Jackson R.C. and Masters R.S.W., Cognition and skill in sport, In: F. Durso, R. Nickerson, S. Dumais, S. Lewandowsky, & T. Perfect , Handbook of Applied Cognition (2nd Ed.). . Wiley, 2007, 333-359. |
|
Jackson R.C. and Masters R.S.W., Ritualised behaviors in skilled performance are a function of hazard precaution, Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 2007, 29: 621-622. |
|
Masters
R.S.W., Associate Editor, In: Alfermann D
& Taylor A, Psychology of Sport and Exercise. |
|
Masters
R.S.W., Eves F.F. and McManus A.M., Development and validation
of prompted stair climbing as an intervention to increase healthy lifestyle
activity in Hong Kong: Effects of point-of-choice stair climbing
interventions in |
|
Masters
R.S.W., Dr Tom Anderson Memorial Lecture in
Sport and Exercise Science, Dr Tom Anderson Trust, Sports Medicine New
Zealand. |
|
Masters R.S.W., Pall H.S., MacMahon K.M.A. and Eves F.F., Duration of Parkinson disease is associated with an increased propensity for 'reinvestment', Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2007, 21: 123-126. |
|
Masters
R.S.W., Emotion control in high performance
athletes, New Zealand Academy of Sport Performance Conference. |
|
Masters R.S.W., van der Kamp G.J. and Jackson R.C., Imperceptibly off-centre goalkeepers influence penalty-kick direction in soccer, Psychological Science. 2007, 18: 222-223. |
|
Masters
R.S.W., Implicit (motor) learning - now and
then, Combined Annual Conference of Sports Medicine |
|
Masters
R.S.W., Implicit [motor] learning in sport
II, |
|
Masters
R.S.W., Implicit [motor] learning in sport I,
|
|
Masters
R.S.W., Implicit motor learning and the NZ
coach approach, New Zealand Academy of Sport Performance Conference. |
|
Masters R.S.W. and Jackson R.C., Marginally perceptible thresholds of awareness in anticipation of service direction in tennis, In: Farrow D, Research Reports. Australian Institute of Sport, 2007. |
|
Masters
R.S.W., Psychological aspects of game
preparation in |
|
Maxwell
J.P., Masters R.S.W. and Lam W.K., Differential distribution of
attentional resources during novel task performance following errorless and
errorful learning: Evidence from probe reaction times. , Proceedings of
the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences Annual Conference, |
|
Orrell A.J., Eves F.F. and Masters R.S.W., Implicit Sequence Learning Processes after Unilateral Stroke, Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 2007, 17: 335-354. |
|
Poolton
J.M., Masters R.S.W. and Maxwell J.P., Development of a
culturally appropriate analogy for implicit motor learning. , Proceedings
of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences Annual Conference, |
|
Poolton J.M., Masters R.S.W. and Maxwell J.P., Passing thoughts on the evolutionary stability of implicit motor behaviour: Performance retention under physiological fatigue. , Consciousness and Cognition. 2007, 16: 456-468. |
|
Researcher
: Maxwell JP |
|
Project Title: |
Instruction, errorless learning and rehabilitation: Taking the spanner out of the works? |
|
Investigator(s): |
Maxwell JP, Beach CL, Masters RSW |
|
Department: |
|
|
Source(s) of Funding: |
Competitive Earmarked Research Grants (CERG) |
|
Start Date: |
10/2004 |
|
Abstract: |
|
To determine the remaining qualities of errorless learning and compare them with those of explicit learning; to provide use with a clear understanding of the implicit nature of learning without error and a deeper appreciation of implicit motor learning in general. |
|
Project Title: |
Anger and aggression in sport |
|
Investigator(s): |
Maxwell JP, Masters RSW, Sit HP |
|
Department: |
|
|
Source(s) of Funding: |
Competitive Earmarked Research Grants (CERG) |
|
Start Date: |
01/2006 |
|
Abstract: |
|
To provide further support for the concurrent validities of English and Chinese language versions of the PASS through a correlational design; to assess predictive validity of the PASS through comparison with observed behaviour; to complete longitudinal observations of athlete behaviour; to validate the use of an emotion control program designed to reduce aggressive tendencies; to evaluate the sensitivity of the PASS to anger and aggression change following an intervention program. |
|
Project Title: |
Antecedents of adolescent school children's aggressive and antisocial behaviours in sport and society |
|
Investigator(s): |
Maxwell JP, Sit HP |
|
Department: |
|
|
Source(s) of Funding: |
Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
|
Start Date: |
03/2006 |
|
Abstract: |
|
Research examining the antecedents of
athlete aggression has led to the development of a number of theories. By far
the most popular models used to examine aggression in sport are
Frustration-Aggression (Dollard, et al. 1939), Frustration-Aggression revised
(Berkowitz, 1993; Baron & Richardson, 1994) and Social Learning Theory
(Bandura, 1973). The Frustration-Aggression theory proposed that frustration
resulted from the blocking of goals or desires and that the build up of
frustration inevitably led to behavioural expression through aggressive
actions. It was the insistence of inevitability that led to the revision of
this theory by, amongst others, Berkowitz (1965). Berkowitz pointed out that
not all people respond to frustration with overt aggression; rather,
situational cues and learned responses contribute to the probability of
aggressive behaviour. Berkowitz (1993) subsequently added cognitive factors
to his model allowing emotional responses and personal motivation to
contribute to the propensity for aggressive behaviour. The role of learned
behaviour is undoubtedly important to the appearance of aggression in sport
and general society (Bandura, 1973) and forms a major component of the
current research proposal. Bandura and colleagues demonstrated that exposure
to a violent model increased the tendency of children to behave aggressively
through imitation of the model’s actions. It is likely that exposure to
violence and antisocial behaviour outside sport will be linked to an
increased tendency and acceptance of aggressive and unsporting behaviours on
the pitch. Individuals who are involved in ‘aggressive’ contact sports may
have a history of violence exposure. This may be particularly true of younger
athletes who are more easily influenced by their environment and behaviour of
peers. Conversely, recent research in |
|
Project Title: |
The role of working memory in movement control |
|
Investigator(s): |
Maxwell JP, Masters RSW |
|
Department: |
|
|
Source(s) of Funding: |
Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
|
Start Date: |
04/2007 |
|
Abstract: |
|
Masters and Maxwell (2004) argued that motor skill acquisition and subsequent performance can be subsumed by two cognitive processes, a declarative pathway that is reliant on the availability of working memory and a non-declarative (or procedural) pathway that functions independent of working memory availability. Masters and Maxwell further argued, on the basis of extensive experimental evidence (Beilock & Carr, 2001; Liao & Masters, 2001; Masters, 1992; Maxwell, Masters, & Eves, 2000, Maxwell, Masters, Kerr, and Weedon, 2001, Maxwell, Masters, & Eves, 2003; Wulf & Weigelt, 1997), that the role of the declarative pathway in motor skill acquisition and online control of movement should be minimised. Working memory is a mental module that has been implicated in the identification, correction, and recall of performance errors (Baddeley & Wilson, 1994). In a typical discovery learning situation, the learner formulates a hypothesis (in working memory) about the correct action to achieve a goal, assesses the outcome (again possibly involving working memory) and integrates this information with the original hypothesis to inform future attempts. Therefore, working memory is likely to be most active when errors are frequent and, eventually, the performer comes to rely on its availability (Masters & Maxwell, 2004; Maxwell, Masters, & Eves, 2003). When errors are infrequent, the participation of working memory is likely reduced or minimal (Maxwell, Masters, Kerr, & Weedon, 2001). Support for this contention has been provided in a number of publications (e.g. Poolton, Masters, & Maxwell, 2006) and experiments, conducted as part of a previous CERG grant award to the PI, that are currently under review (e.g. Maxwell, Masters, & Lam, 2006). Unfortunately, evidence for the involvement of working memory in performance of motor skills was indirect and gross in nature. Working memory was assessed using reaction time and secondary tasks performed in conjunction with the primary motor task. Performance deterioration on either the primary or secondary task was taken as an indication of working memory activity. However, working memory is a short term, limited capacity system that was originally designed as a three component model. The model comprised an attentional controller termed the central executive (Baddeley, 1996) served by two slave systems, the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop. The visuospatial sketchpad is assumed to hold visual and spatial information from sensory input and manipulate temporal images (Logie, 1995), while the phonological loop maintains verbal information by sub-vocal repetition (Baddeley, 1999). More recently a fourth component, the episodic buffer, has been added to the model. It was proposed that the buffer integrates and stores information in a multi-dimensional code from the two slave systems and long term memory (Baddeley, 2000). The central executive is believed to combine information from the three subsidiary systems to generate coherent declarative output (Baddeley, 2000). Thus it is possible that all, one, none, or a complex combination of modules contribute to skilled motor performance. The capacity of working memory also varies across individuals. According to Beilock and Carr (2005), high working memory capacity is an attribute of expert performers of cognitive skills and may also be true for motoric skills. This assertion is contrary to Masters and Maxwell's claim that motor performance should be independent of working memory resources. Thus, the primary aim of this program of research is to directly test the involvement of working memory in motor skill acquisition and performence. To achieve this aim, three tests of working memory capacity will be evaluated within the local Chinese population: Turner and Engle's (1989) Operation Span (OSPAN), Daneman and Carpenter's (1980) Reading Span (RSPAN), and Hockey and Geffen's (2004) Visuospatial Working Memory Task (VWMT). The OSPAN and RSPAN measure central executive and phonological loop capacity, therefore, combined they provide a measure of verbal working memory whereas the VWMT provides a measure of visual working memory. These measures should be associated with meaningful patterns of results on traditional tests of intelligence (e.g. Multidimensional Aptitude Battery and Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale measuring IQ). Once validated, the relationship between working memory capacity and motor learning can be meaningfully evaluated. Taking Maxwell et al's proposal that errors promote dependence on the availability of working memory, we can predict that when errors are frequent during the learning process, participants with low working memory capacity should perform worse than individuals with a high working memory capacity. However, when errors are infrequent, working memory capacity should bear no relationship with final performance. Thus, learning techniques that reduce, rather than encourage, error should prove more effective for low capacity individuals. |
|
List of Research Outputs |
|
Abernethy
A.B., Maxwell J.P., Masters R.S.W., van der Kamp G.J. and Jackson R.C., Attentional Processes in
Skill Learning and Expert Performance, In: G. Tenenbaum & R.C. Eklund
(Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (3rd Ed.). |
|
Abernethy
A.B., Maxwell J.P., Jackson R.C. and Masters R.S.W., Cognition and skill in
sport. , In: In F.T. Durso (Ed.), R. Nickerson, S. Dumais, S. Lewandowsky,
& T. Perfect (Assoc.Eds.), Handbook of Applied Cognition (2nd ed.).
|
|
Abernethy A.B., Maxwell J.P., Jackson R.C. and Masters R.S.W., Cognition and skill in sport, In: F. Durso, R. Nickerson, S. Dumais, S. Lewandowsky, & T. Perfect , Handbook of Applied Cognition (2nd Ed.). . Wiley, 2007, 333-359. |
|
Kadar E.E., Platinus Z., Maxwell J.P. and Costall A., Global
biases in exploratory motor learning. , Proceedings of the 9th European Workshop
of Ecological Psychology, |
|
Maxwell J.P., Moores E. and Chow C.F., Anger rumination and aggression amongst British and Hong Kong Chinese athletes: A cross-cultural comparison. , International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2007, 5: 9-27. |
|
Maxwell J.P., Development and validation of a Chinese version of the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire. , Journal of Personality Assessment. 2007, 88: 1-11. |
|
Maxwell
J.P. and Moores E., Development of a short
scale measuring provocation in competitive athletes. , Proceedings of the
British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences Annual Conference, |
|
Maxwell
J.P., Masters
R.S.W. and Lam W.K., Differential
distribution of attentional resources during novel task performance following
errorless and errorful learning: Evidence from probe reaction times. , Proceedings
of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences Annual Conference, |
|
Maxwell J.P. and Moores E., The development of a short scale measuring aggressiveness and anger in competitive athletes. , Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2007, 8: 179-193. |
|
Poolton
J.M., Masters R.S.W. and Maxwell J.P., Development of a
culturally appropriate analogy for implicit motor learning. , Proceedings
of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences Annual Conference, |
|
Poolton J.M., Masters R.S.W. and Maxwell J.P., Passing thoughts on the evolutionary stability of implicit motor behaviour: Performance retention under physiological fatigue. , Consciousness and Cognition. 2007, 16: 456-468. |
|
Researcher
: McManus AM |
|
Project Title: |
Exercise testing in normal children and children with congenital heart disease |
|
Investigator(s): |
McManus AM, Yung TC |
|
Department: |
Phy Edu & Sports Sc Unit |
|
Source(s) of Funding: |
Children's Heart Foundation - General Award |
|
Start Date: |
09/2000 |
|
Abstract: |
|
To establish norm values for C-P fitness; to establish normative values for C-V function during exercise in children; to assess the impact of PA and inactivity on C-P / C-V function. |
|
Project Title: |
Heart rate
monitors as a motivational tool in physical education in |
|
Investigator(s): |
McManus AM, Masters RSW |
|
Department: |
|
|
Source(s) of Funding: |
Polar Electro Qy - General Award |
|
Start Date: |
01/2004 |
|
Abstract: |
|
The aim of this project is to use heart-rate monitors as a motivational tool to encourage in children the activity they need for a lifetime of health and well being. The first goal will be to establish whether heart-rate monitors, when used in conjunction with an educational heart health programme, i) have an immediate, short-term effect on markers of motivation of children to be active and ii) whether this results in increased physical activity. A second goal will be to establish whether points i) and ii) above are maintained in the long-term and whether this maintenance is dependent on continued use of the heart-rate monitors. A third goal will be to establish whether increased physical activity, if sustained in the long-term, is sufficient to accrue change in health-related outcomes, such as body composition and aerobic fitness. |
|
Project Title: |
The role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ in regulating spontaneous physical activity |
|
Investigator(s): |
McManus AM, Leung FCC |
|
Department: |
|
|
Source(s) of Funding: |
Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
|
Start Date: |
02/2005 |
|
Abstract: |
|
The study is designed to address the
hypothesis that peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (PPAR-δ)
inherently modulates spontaneous physical activity in the up-regulation of
lipid catabolism and thermogenesis. Spontaneous non-exercise activity has
been found to be an important compensatory mechanism against fat gain in
humans who have been over-fed (1), however, how increases in non-exercise
activity are regulated is unclear. Levine et al. (1) observed spontaneous
movements in adults and evaluated what they termed the non-exercise activity
thermogenesis (NEAT). Their work demonstrated that individuals with high
levels of NEAT engendered more energy expenditure and had decreased
susceptibility to adiposity when compared with those individuals with lower
levels, even when both groups were overfed. More recent evidence has
demonstrated thyroid hormone plays a role in the alteration of NEAT (2), and
tentative molecular pathways underpinning this relationship, including
uncoupling proteins, have been suggested. PPAR-δ participates in the
up-regulation of energy metabolism (3) and appears to induce pleiotropic
responses in skeletal muscle which result in an improved metabolic profile
and improved athletic performance (4,5). Peroxisome proliferator-activated
receptors have been substantially implicated in relation to growth and
obesity since synthetic PPAR-δ agonists revealed PPAR-δ's regulation
proficiency on fatty acid oxidation and energy homeostasis (6). Alterations
were subsequently detected in adipose tissue after targeted disruption of
PPAR-δ in mouse (4). Transgenic over-expression of PPAR-δ in adipose tissue
produces obese-resistant mice, even when fed with a high-fat diet. Recent
findings showed that PPAR-δ mediated with transcriptional cofactor peroxisome
proliferator-activated receptor-gamma co-activator 1α (PGC-1α) can regulate
muscle fiber specification. Muscle fiber type I was increased and mitochondrial
biogenesis occurred after activation (4). The oxidatively optimised muscle
improves endurance capacity, however, whether it results in increases in
spontaneous activity is unknown. References 1. Levine JA, Eberhardt NL,
Jensen MD. (1999) Role of nonexercise activity thermogenesis in resistance to
fat gain in humans. Science, 283: 212-214. 2. Levine JA, Nygren J, Short KR,
Sreekumaran Nair K. (2003) Effect of hyperthyroidism on spontaneous physical
activity and energy expenditure in rates. Journal of Applied Physiology, 94:
165-170. 3. Wang YX, Lee CH, Tieo S, Yu RT, Ham J, Kang H, |
|
Project Title: |
NEAT in children |
|
Investigator(s): |
McManus AM, Yu CW |
|
Department: |
|
|
Source(s) of Funding: |
Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
|
Start Date: |
04/2007 |
|
Abstract: |
|
|
|
List of Research Outputs |
|
Ho
D.S.Y., Lo W.S., Mak K.K., Lai Y.K., Thomas G.N., McManus A.M. and Lam T.H., Perceived past, present, and
future body shape of adolescent boys and girls (abstract), 4th
Asia-Oceania Conference on Obesity, 9-11 February 2007, Seoul, Korea.
|
|
Mak
K.K., Ho D.S.Y., Lo W.S., Lai Y.K., McManus A.M., Day J.R., Thomas G.N. and Lam T.H., The practice of and perceptions
towards non-exercise physical activities among Hong Kong adolescents
(abstract), 4th
Asia-Oceania Conference on Obesity, 9-11 February 2007, Seoul. |
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Masters
R.S.W., Eves F.F. and McManus A.M.,
Development and validation of prompted stair climbing as an intervention to
increase healthy lifestyle activity in Hong Kong: Effects of point-of-choice
stair climbing interventions in |
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Sit
H.P., Co |
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Sung R.Y.T., Yu C.W., Choi K.C., McManus A.M., Li A.M., Xu S.L., Chan D., Lo A.F., Chan J.C. and Fok T.F., Waist circumference and body mass index in Chinese children: cutoff values for predicting cardiovascular risk factors., International Journal of Obesity . Nature Publishing Group, 2007, 31 (3): 550 - 558. |
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Vertinsky P., McManus A.M. and Sit H.P., ‘Dancing Class’: Schooling the dance in colonial and post-colonial Hong Kong, Sport, Education and Society. 2007, 12: 73-92. |
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Researcher
: Poolton JM |
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List of Research Outputs |
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Poolton
J.M., Masters
R.S.W. and Maxwell J.P.,
Development of a culturally appropriate analogy for implicit motor learning.
, Proceedings of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences
Annual Conference, |
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Poolton J.M., Masters R.S.W. and Maxwell J.P., Passing thoughts on the evolutionary stability of implicit motor behaviour: Performance retention under physiological fatigue. , Consciousness and Cognition. 2007, 16: 456-468. |
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Poolton J.M. and Zachry T.L., So You Want To Learn Implicitly? Coaching and Learning Through Implicit Motor Learning Techniques, International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. Multi-science, 2007, 2: 67-78. |
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Researcher
: Sit HP |
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Project Title: |
Psychological Reversals of Children’s Game Participatory Behaviour |
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Investigator(s): |
Sit HP, Masters RSW |
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Department: |
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Source(s) of Funding: |
Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
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Start Date: |
06/2006 |
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Abstract: |
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Children and youth nowadays are being raised in a “cyberworld” where electronic media increasingly shapes their feelings, attitudes and behaviors (Strasburger, 1995). There is widespread concern that electronic media such as television viewing and computer and video game playing contributes to childhood obesity problems. Children and youth on average spend 32 minutes per day playing electronic games (Beentjes, Koolstra, & Marseille, 2001) and the amount of combined video and computer usage exceeds television viewing (Christakis, Ebel, Rivara, & Zimmerman, 2004). There is compelling evidence that the sedentary nature of electronic media is associated with high body fatness and therefore is an important behavioral risk factor for overweight children (Andersen, Crespo, Barlett, Cheskin, & Pratt, 1998; Eisenmann, Bartee & Wang, 2002; Tremblay & Willms, 2003). Other studies, however, report that such an association is weak (Marshall, Biddle, Gorely, Cameron, & Murdey, 2004) and that simply trying to minimize electronic media such as television viewing is not the best intervention strategy to reduce the sedentary behavior of children (Norman, Schmid, Sallis, Calfas, & Patrick, 2005). Numerous researchers have attempted to make use of different physical activity games as effective strategies to develop and encourage children to adopt a more active lifestyle (Kelder et al., 2005). To identify intervention strategies to promote physical activity in children, Finfgeld, Wongvatunyu, Conn, Grando, and Russell (2003) have recently addressed a need to apply Reversal Theory (Apter, 2001, 2005) as a new and emerging approach to understanding human behavior change within the public health field. This theory posits that human personality comprises some relatively fixed personality characteristics or motivational style profiles. These profiles consist of four pairs of motivational states (i.e., telic-paratelic, conformist-negativistic, autic-alloic, and mastery-sympathy), which exist and function in opposing ways. Motivational profiles indicate the amount of time an individual spends in one or its opposing state in a given dyad over time in a general life situation (i.e., metamotivational dominance) or in a particular situation such as sport and physical activity participation (i.e., situational state balance) (Apter, 2001). Previous research demonstrates a close link between one’s dominance or situational state balance and sport participation patterns and motivation (e.g., Kerr, Au, & Lindner, 2004, 2005; Lindner & Kerr, 2000, 2001; Sit & Lindner, 2005, in press). Individuals however will reverse between opposing states in a given dyad depending on the meanings and motives felt in different situations at different times. Reversals can be “triggered” by environmental stimuli (contingent reversals), frustration (not attaining satisfaction in a current state), and satiation (being in the same state for a period of time). A small number of studies demonstrate that psychological reversals occur between a pair of states and are more associated with external events and frustration than satiation (Kerr & Vlaswinkel, 1995; Males, Kerr, & Gerkovich, 1998). These studies however explore only the telic-paratelic dimension in adults during competitive sports event. Although later studies have identified the factors affecting reversals other than in a sports setting (Hudson & Bates, 2000) and examined different motivational profiles (Hudson & Walker, 2002), little is known about the motivational state patterns experienced by children and the factors affecting their reversals between each dyad on sedentary versus active-based game tasks. A question of whether such state patterns and mechanisms of reversals are associated with one’s situational state balance remains unanswered. The purpose of the proposed research is to examine children’s motivational state patterns and the factors affecting reversals between each pair of states on a game (chess) that can be sedentary or an active laboratory game task. Children’s situational state balance in relation to motivational state patterns and reversals during the game tasks will be identified. The work will also establish if there is any relationship between situational state balance and game participatory behavior in children. |
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Project Title: |
Motivational correlates of physical activity and inactivity in children with disabilities |
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Investigator(s): |
Sit HP, Cerin E |
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Department: |
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Source(s) of Funding: |
Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
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Start Date: |
03/2007 |
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Abstract: |
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Regular physical activity is associated
with reduced risk for secondary conditions in individuals with disabilities
(Rimmer & Braddock, 2002). Healthy People 2010 suggests that the goal of
developing an active lifestyle is one of ten leading health indicator areas
and that individuals with disabilities are the target population (United
States Department of Health and Human Service [USDHHS], 2000). There is
limited information on the physical activity and health of children with
disabilities, and research on this topic has been identified as an important
public health priority (Cooper et al., 1999). Current data suggests that
children with disabilities are insufficiently active for health purposes
(Hogan, McLellan, & Bauman, 2000; Longmuir & Bar-Or, 2000; Sit,
Lindner, & Sherrill, 2002). To maximize opportunities for empowerment and
to minimize health risks associated with sedentary living among children with
disabilities, there is a pressing need for education and health professionals
to promote physical activity (Hutzler, & Sherrill, 1999), but more needs
to be known about the factors influencing children’s activity and inactivity
(Gordon-Larsen, McMurray, & Popkin, 2000). Recent physical activity
literature and research indicate that, demographic/biological variables such
as sex (male) and age (young) are the common correlates of children’s physical
activity, whereas body weight or fatness is inconsistently negatively
associated with physical activity. A comprehensive review of correlates of
physical activity of children and adolescents by Sallis, Prochaska, and
Taylor (1999) identifies six categories of potential correlates, of which
psychological aspects are one of the strong correlates. Psychological or
motivational variables such as intention to be active, perceived activity
competence, and sensation seeking are strong correlates of children’s physical
activity (Sallis et al., 1999). Contemporary researchers have attempted to
understand individual’s motivation as one of the correlates of physical
activity by using motivational frameworks within the physical activity and
public health field (Finfgeld, Wongvatunyu, Conn, Grando, & Russell,
2003; Kerr, 1997, 1999, 2001; Kerr, Au, & Lindner, 2004, 2005). Apter
(1989, 2001), for example, posits that personality comprises relatively fixed
motivational styles. These styles represent individuals’ needs or experiences
which are linked with their participatory behaviour (Apter, 2005). Previous
research demonstrates a close link between one’s motivational styles and
sport participatory behaviour. For example, individuals with serious-oriented
and enjoyment-seeking styles show preference for and engagement in
safe/endurance and risk/explosive sports, respectively (Chirivella &
Martinez, 1994; Kerr, 1989; Svebak & Kerr, 1989). Other studies report
that high sport participation frequency is associated with serious-oriented,
self-centered, and competence styles (Lindner & Kerr, 1999, 2000, 2001).
These studies mainly focus on structured physical activity and the
association between one’s motivational styles and unstructured physical
activity is uncertain. Recent efforts have been made to examine motivation
for physical activity in |
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List of Research Outputs |
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Cerin
E., Sit H.P., Chan W.M.,
Tham M.K., Cheung M.C. and Ho D.S.Y.,
A pilot study on the associations between the built environment and walking
in senior residents of |
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Cerin E., Sit H.P., Chan W.M., Tham M.K., Cheung M.C. and Ho D.S.Y., A study on the associations between the built environment and walking in senior residents of Hong Kong: Preliminary findings, 6th Annual Meeting of the International Society of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, Oslo, Norway. 2007. |
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Ho W.O. and Sit H.P., An ice-skating program for the children with mental disabilities, 9th International Symposium of Asian Society for Adapted Physical Education and Exercise. 2006. |
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Lau H.L., Sit H.P. and Macfarlane D.J., Physical activity participation in relation to body image, self-concept, and self-esteem of individuals with and without disabilities, 9th International Symposium of Asian Society for Adapted Physical Education and Exercise. 2006. |
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Sit
H.P., Can interactive games increase activity
levels of children? , Invited speech at Immaculate Heart of Mary School, |
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Sit H.P., Oral presentation session - chairperson, 9th International Symposium of Asian Society for Adapted Physical Education and Exercise. 2006. |
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Sit
H.P., Co |
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Sit H.P., Chen S.H. and Lian J.M., Physical education for children with special needs in Hong Kong, 9th International Symposium of Asian Society for Adapted Physical Education and Exercise. 2006. |
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Sit H.P., Step for 20 years and the future prospects of ASAPE, 9th International Symposium of Asian Society for Adapted Physical Education and Exercise. 2006. |
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Vertinsky P., McManus A.M. and Sit H.P., ‘Dancing Class’: Schooling the dance in colonial and post-colonial Hong Kong, Sport, Education and Society. 2007, 12: 73-92. |
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Researcher
: Yu CW |
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Project Title: |
Immediate and long term blood pressure response to strength training in adolescents |
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Investigator(s): |
Yu CW, McManus AM |
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Department: |
|
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Source(s) of Funding: |
Small Project Funding |
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Start Date: |
12/2005 |
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Abstract: |
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Background The increased awareness of the
numerous musculoskeletal and metabolic benefits of strength exercise has led
to its popularity in adults in recent years. Evidence is now emerging that
strength training also improves muscle strength in children and it may be
undertaken to enhance their sport performance, rehabilitate injuries, prevent
injuries and improve long-term health (AAP, 2001). We have recently shown
that strength training not only improved body composition and blood lipid
profile in obese children, but also boosted their confidence in coordination
and endurance (Sung 2002). Cardiovascular responses of strength training have
not been as extensively studied as aerobic exercises. Heavy strength training
has been demonstrated to cause large increases in both systolic and diastolic
blood pressure during the exercise (MacDougall 1985) and therefore may
warrant caution, especially for those who are already hypertensive. However,
this form of exercise does not cause chronically elevated resting blood
pressure and notably it has been shown that 4 weeks or longer of progressive
strength training reduces resting systolic and diastolic blood pressure in a
recent meta-analysis. (Kelley 2000) Corresponding studies of the effect of
strength training on blood pressure in children have been scant. A few
studies in children using intraarterial catheter or sphygmomanometer
measurement have shown that cardiovascular responses to acute strength
training in children are similar to those in adults: both systolic and
diastolic blood pressure rises, with limited changes in heart rate and
cardiac output.(Nau 1990, Strong 1978, Laird 1979, Cassone 1981) To our
knowledge no data are available on the long-term effect of progressive
strength exercise training on blood pressure in children or adolescents. In
order to advise children on taking up strength training, we need to have a
better understanding of its acute and chronic cardiovascular effects. In this
study, we propose to use a validated non-invasive, new device (Portapres) to
measure the instantaneous change of blood pressure in children and
adolescents who will paticipate in a 3-month strength training class. The
accuracy of the Portapres device in measuring continuous, non-invasive blood
pressure the finger during stress had been evaluated in patients during
increasing levels of bicycle exercise, using simultaneously registered
intra-aortic (aortic arch) pressure as a reference (Eckert & Horstkotte,
2002). We will also study the chronic effects of progressive strength
training on blood pressure by monitoring their resting blood pressure before,
after the 4-month training period, and at 10-month of the program. The
purposes of this project are 1) to determine the immediate effect of strength
training on blood pressure and 2) the long term effects of progressive
strength training on resting blood pressure. |
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List of Research Outputs |
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Marsh H.W., Hau K.T., Sung R.Y.T. and Yu C.W., Childhood obesity gender
actual-ideal body image discrepancies and physical self-concept in |
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Sung R.Y.T., Yu C.W., Choi K.C., McManus A.M., Li A.M., Xu S.L., Chan D., Lo A.F., Chan J.C. and Fok T.F., Waist circumference and body mass index in Chinese children: cutoff values for predicting cardiovascular risk factors., International Journal of Obesity . Nature Publishing Group, 2007, 31 (3): 550 - 558. |
|
Yu
C.W., Chan S., Cheng F., Sung R.Y.T. and Hau
K.T., Are physical activity and academic performance compatible? Academic
achievement, conduct, physical activity and self-esteem of Hong Kong Chinese
primary school children. , Educational Studies. |
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Yu C.W., Exercise prescription for general health and fitness (Invited lecture), The College of Professional & Continuing Nursing Education. 2006. |
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Yu C.W., Exercise therapy in diabetes and obesity. (Community symposium), Diabetes Hongkong . 2006. |
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Yu C.W., Using heart rate to monitor exercise intensity - theroy and practical (invited lecture), Hong Kong Nutrition Association LTD. 2006. |
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Researcher
: Zachry TL |
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List of Research Outputs |
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Poolton J.M. and Zachry T.L., So You Want To Learn Implicitly? Coaching and Learning Through Implicit Motor Learning Techniques, International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. Multi-science, 2007, 2: 67-78. |
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Researcher
: van der Kamp GJ |
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Project Title: |
On the development of implicit and explicit learning processes: Prism adaptation in 6- to 12- year-old children |
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Investigator(s): |
van der Kamp GJ, Maxwell JP, Masters RSW |
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Department: |
|
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Source(s) of Funding: |
Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
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Start Date: |
10/2005 |
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Abstract: |
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In recent years, the roles of explicit learning (ie. learning through the accumulation of declarative task relevant knowledge) and implicit learning processes (ie. enhancing skill through the use of non-declarative knowledge while concurrently preventing the accumulation of declarative knowledge) in the acquisition of perceptual-motor skills have been actively investigated in adult populations (see Masters, 2000; Willingham, 1998; Sun et al., 2005). However, when it comes to their roles during childhood there is a paucity of research (Van der Kamp et al., 2003). From an evolutionary perspective, it has been hypothesised that implicit learning processes are age-independent and that children must be capable of implicit learning, ‘because that is what they do’ (Reber, 1992, p. 40). It is thought that children from a very early age can learn implicitly and do so relatively independent of conscious attempts to acquire perceptual-motor skills and without much in the way of conscious knowledge of what they have, in fact, learned. However, without careful empirical research into the (changing) contributions of implicit and explicit processes in perceptual-motor learning during childhood such an argument, although perhaps intuitively appealing, is not entirely convincing. The proposed investigation will therefore examine age-differences in the roles of implicit and explicit processes in perceptual-motor skill learning in children between 5 and 12 years. In the adult literature, a primary means of demonstrating the distinction between implicit and explicit learning processing is the use of verbal protocols to assess the amount of explicit knowledge that is accumulated with improvements in perceptual-motor skill. Obviously, verbalization of explicit knowledge is problematic in children, and even not without contention in adults (Shanks & St. John, 1994). Consequently, a method is needed to assess the distinction between implicit and explicit processes that is not dependent on verbal reports on the side of the participants. In this respect, Willingham (1998) proposed that prism adaptation can serve as a vehicle for investigating the roles of implicit and explicit processes in perceptual-motor learning. He argued that the rate of adjustment in perceptual-motor behaviour during prism exposure is indicative of explicit processes, whereas, the negative-aftereffects after removal of the prisms reflect implicit, unconscious learning processes. The proposed investigation, therefore, explores the expediency of prism adaptation as a vehicle to examine implicit and explicit learning processes in primary school children. |
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Project Title: |
Expertise in visual perception: Exploring the role of action |
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Investigator(s): |
van der Kamp GJ, |
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Department: |
|
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Source(s) of Funding: |
Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
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Start Date: |
03/2006 |
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Abstract: |
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Expertise in fast ball sports such as tennis is often characterized as a player seemingly having all the time in the world to make a return action despite the fact that the projectile travels between players in a very short time. It is the expert’s superiority to anticipate the opponent’s intentions that provides a crucial performance advantage over less skilled individuals. It is generally accepted that the expert’s skill in anticipating the opponent’s intentions is acquired through a very extensive experience of watching other players’ actions, which results in a better attunement to more proximal kinematic information produced early in the opponent’s action sequence (e.g. Abernethy & Russell, 1987; Abernethy & Zawi, 2005; Shim et al., 2005). The ‘perceptual experience hypothesis’ has proven very successful (cf. Williams & Davids, 1995). Yet, it is pertinent to note that it emphasizes one side of the coin only. That is, considerations of the role of action in perceptual anticipation have been conspicuously absent. The purpose of the proposed research is therefore to investigate the role of action in skilled perceptual anticipation. A relatively recent framework for the understanding of the relation between perception and action is the common coding hypothesis of Prinz (Prinz, 1997; Hommel et al., 2001). It holds that representations that allow one to perceive the intention of an action are the same as (or even identical to) representations that determine the actual production of an action. The core assumption is that these representations code the perceivable effects of actions. As a result, watching another individual performing an action triggers the perceiver’s representation for the production of that action. Evidence from neuroscience suggests that dedicated neurons may underlie this process. Fogassi et al. (2005), for example, showed that the same so-called ‘mirror’ neurons in the inferior parietal cortex of the monkey brain discharged when the monkeys produced an action as well as when they observed the same action done by the experimenter, but only when the action served the same goal. A similar mirror system may exist in corresponding areas of the human brain (Rizzolatti et al., 2001; Decety & Grezes, 1999). One consequence from the common coding hypothesis is that the perception of another individual’s intentions for action should be mediated by the perceiver’s capability to produce that action her- or himself. That is, the more the perceived action corresponds with the perceiver’s own action capabilities, the better the intentions of the currently perceived actions can be predicted. In recent years, several methods have been developed to test this conjecture. For example, Calvo-Merino et al. (2005) examined whether the perception of another individual’s action is mediated by the action expertise of the observer. They had non-skilled and expert dancers of different styles watch video clips of their own dance style versus the other style. fMRI-data revealed greater brain activity of the mirror system when dancers viewed video clips of the action that they had been trained in. In other words, while all the subjects saw the same actions, the mirror system responded quite differently according to whether they had acquired the actions or not (Calvo-Merino et al., 2005). Knoblich and Flach (2001) provided more direct evidence for the common coding hypothesis. They argued that the prediction of the intention of an action (or its future outcome) may be more accurate when one observes one’s own actions than when one observes another individual’s actions, because in the former case the system that produces the action is the same system that contributes to predicting the action outcome. To test this, Knoblich and Flach had participants view video clips displaying either themselves or somebody else throwing darts. Each clip started with the participant picking up the dart and terminated when the dart left the hand. The participants had to predict the future landing position of the dart. The predictions were more accurate when participants watched themselves than when they saw strangers throwing darts (see also Knoblich & Prinz, 2001; Grezes et al., 2004; Loula et al., 2005). Returning to perception in fast ball sports, we can now ask whether expert’s superiority in anticipating the opponent’s intentions is exclusively due to extensive, sometimes almost lifelong perceptual experience, or whether expertise in action production (i.e. the planning and execution of interceptive movements) in fast ball sports is an additional constraint on skilled perception. To this end, participants will watch video clips of tennis players hitting different strokes. The participants’ task will be to anticipate the action intention of the opponent hitter by initiating different types of stroke dependent on the predicted ball flight (see Shim et al., 2005). In both experiments, the degree of correspondence between the action system of the participant and the opponent hitter will be manipulated (i.e. self versus other, and left- versus right-hander). Following the common coding hypothesis, it is expected that the more the perceived action corresponds with the perceiver’s own action capabilities, the more accurate the intentions of the perceived actions will be predicted. |
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List of Research Outputs |
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Abernethy
A.B., Maxwell J.P., Masters R.S.W., van der Kamp G.J. and Jackson R.C., Attentional Processes in
Skill Learning and Expert Performance, In: G. Tenenbaum & R.C. Eklund
(Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (3rd Ed.). |
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Masters R.S.W., van der Kamp G.J. and Jackson R.C., Imperceptibly off-centre goalkeepers influence penalty-kick direction in soccer, Psychological Science. 2007, 18: 222-223. |
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