INSTITUTE OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE
| Researcher : Abernethy AB |
| Project Title: | The influence of processing speed and display resolution on perceptual expertise. |
| Investigator(s): | Abernethy AB |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 07/2005 |
| Abstract: |
| A long-standing research interest of the PI has been in the description and explanation of expert performance as it occurs in natural, time-constrained perceptual-motor tasks of the type evident in ergonomic tasks such as driving and flying and sport tasks such as those involved in fast ball games. A major goal of this research is to understand the processes responsible for the expert advantage in such tasks, to understand how this advantage develops, and to then use this knowledge to facilitate that rate at which the skills of non-experts can be made more expert-like. One of the primary experimental approaches that has been used to examine the perceptual basis of expert anticipation in sport tasks is progressive temporal occlusion. The progressive temporal occlusion paradigm involves the editing of dynamic visual images (typically filmed from a player’s perspective) in order to provide selective vision to different time periods or events within the actions of an opposing player. Multiple occlusion points are characteristically used so as to form a progressive series of viewing periods (or time windows) within the event of interest. Significant improvement in prediction accuracy across successive occlusion points is taken as evidence for information pick-up from the events contained within the viewing period bounded by these occlusion points. Prediction accuracies superior to chance levels (i.e., superior to 50% in a two-choice prediction task) are also frequently used within this paradigm to provide confirmatory evidence for significant information pick-up. Studies using the progressive temporal occlusion paradigm (e.g., Abernethy & Russell, 1987; Goulet, Bard & Fleury, 1989; Jones & Miles, 1978; Wright, Pleasants & Gomez-Meza, 1990) have consistently demonstrated, across a variety of sports and a variety of different occlusion times, that not only are experts able to anticipate more effectively than novices but they are also capable of picking up useful anticipatory information from early events in their opponent’s movement pattern to which novices are not attuned. In racquet sports, for example, evidence from the temporal occlusion approach has been used to demonstrate that experts are more capable than less skilled players of picking up anticipatory information from the kinematics of events occurring early in the opponent’s hitting action, such as the motion of the arm holding the racquet (Abernethy, Gill, Parks & Packer, 2001; Abernethy & Russell, 1987; Buckolz, Prapavesis & Fairs, 1988; Goulet et al., 1989). These differences may, or may not, be accompanied by differences in visual search patterns, as determined through concurrent measurement of eye movements (or, more strictly, central vision fixation locations). Despite the widespread usage of the temporal occlusion paradigm there are nevertheless some assumptions within both the way the paradigm is used, and the inferences that are drawn from it, that warrant greater scrutiny than has currently been the case. The first, largely methodological issue, is that the typical progressive temporal occlusion technique cannot discriminate between anticipatory information pick-up and overall processing speed as possible explanations of the expert advantage. While superior expert performance on temporal occlusion tasks is generally assumed to be a consequence of earlier information pick-up by experts it remains possible that a generic information processing speed advantage for experts could produce similar findings. Two experiments (Exps 1 & 2) are proposed - the first manipulating the viewing period and the second the display speed - to examine this issue directly. A second issue is that, even with concurrent eye movement recording, it is currently impossible to determine the relative roles of central (focal) and peripheral (ambient) vision in expert perception and in creating the expert advantage. Two additional experiments are proposed that manipulate factors (viz., display resolution, Exp 3; and display luminance, Exp 4) that are known to differentially affect focal and ambient vision to examine this issue. The overall purpose of the project is therefore to extend the existing temporal occlusion methodology to more fully understand the root causes of the expert advantage on anticipatory tasks. |
| Project Title: | The relationship between expert perception, task constraints and selective information pick-up |
| Investigator(s): | Abernethy AB, Wright M |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Competitive Earmarked Research Grants (CERG) |
| Start Date: | 01/2006 |
| Abstract: |
| To enhance understanding of some fundamental aspects of expert perception. More specifically, the experiments to be undertaken aim to : (1) test the efficacy and generality of the constraints-attunement hypothesis of expertise, developed by Vicente and Wang (1998) to explain expertise in memory tasks, and assess its applicability to another set of tasks in which robust expertise effects have been observed - tasks involving dynamic, predictive behaviour; (2) search for, and identify, specific invariants for the perception and prediction of human movement to which only experts are attuned; (3) to examine, using fMRI techniques, in conjunction with behavioural and biomechanical data, the brain activity underpinning expert perception in a natural task environment so that a process-based account of perceptual expertise can be built; (4) differentiate, as best as is possible, expertise effects from those due to experience. |
| Project Title: | Learning and Transfer Effects in the Recall and Recognition of Movement Patterns |
| Investigator(s): | Abernethy AB, Jackson RC |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 07/2007 |
| Abstract: |
| One of the most distinguishing and reproducible characteristics of expert performance across a range of domains is superior recall and recognition of patterns drawn from within the domain of expertise. While the expert’s advantage in recalling and recognizing patterns from their skill domain has been known since the middle of the last century (e.g., de Groot, 1966), a number of key aspects of the expert advantage in ‘reading’ patterns are still not well understood. Little is still known, for instance, about the skill-related differences in attunement to specific pattern information that may underpin expertise or about the theoretically and practically important question of whether expertise in pattern recall and recognition is completely situation-specific or rather whether some meaningful transfer of pattern recall and recognition skills across situations is possible. The purpose of this project is to examine experimentally the extent to which pattern recall and recognition skills are transferable. We propose to use natural visual patterns from the sport of basketball as our stimuli and sport-specific experts, experts from other (related) sports, and non-experts as our participants in order to test the extent and possible mechanisms of transfer. Existing evidence suggests that some transfer of perceptual learning for simple, artificially-generated patterns is possible, although previously experienced patterns are nevertheless consistently recognised with greater speed and accuracy than ones derived from the same template or rule but not previously encountered (Goldstone, 1998). There is also some evidence available for some transfer of forms of cognitive knowledge across the same domain (Gott et al., 1992), and for some transfer from perceptual-motor simulations to more natural situations. Transfer between motor tasks, where it exists at all, is typically positive but small unless the two tasks are so similar as to be practically identical (Schmidt & Young, 1987). With respect to the specific transfer of pattern reading skills from one sport to another, Allard and Starkes (1992) examined the pattern recall performance of ice hockey and basketball players shown patterns of play from both sports. Unsurprisingly, the ice hockey players outperformed the basketball players on the recall of patterns from ice hockey and the basketball players outperformed the ice hockey players on recall of basketball slides. The observation of potentially greatest interest, however, was that the recall performance of the players on the patterns drawn from outside their domain of expertise, while inferior to that of the domain-specific experts, was still relatively good. More recently, Smeeton et al. (2004) used a recognition paradigm to examine the transferability of pattern recognition skills between the sports of soccer, field hockey and volleyball. Some evidence was accrued for transfer between hockey and soccer pattern recognition but the data were difficult to interpret because of variable speed-accuracy trade-offs between the different groups. The PI has been involved in a number of recent studies that have provided some evidence of relevance to question of whether transfer of pattern recall and recognition skills is possible between different sports. In a series of studies (Baker, Côté, & Abernethy, 2003a, 2003b; Côté, Baker, & Abernethy, 2003) the detailed developmental histories of 15 world-class players from three different team ball sports (field hockey, basketball and netball) were examined for commonalities and contrasted with those of experienced but non-expert players. Among other things, these studies revealed that the experts typically experienced a broader range of sports experiences, both structured and unstructured, in their developing years than the non-experts – a finding since replicated for Australian football (Berry & Abernethy, 2005). The number of hours of practice needed to become an expert was found to be inversely related to the breadth of the initial sporting experience; the greater the number of activities the athletes experienced and practised in their developing years (0-12 years) the less deliberate, domain-specific practice that was necessary to acquire expertise within their sport of specialisation. Abernethy, Baker & Côté (2005) examined the follow-up issue of whether positive transfer of pattern recall skills might be a possible mechanism through which the other experiences during the developing/sampling years make an active, functional contributor to the subsequent attainment of domain-specific expertise. Expert netball, basketball and field hockey players and experienced non-experts performed a recall task for patterns of play derived from each of these sports. Experts from sports different to those shown in the presented pattern were found to consistently outperform non-experts in their recall of defensive player positions, presenting some tentative, preliminary evidence that some selective transfer of pattern recall skills may indeed be possible. Interestingly, as visual search analyses of other team sports like soccer (Helsen & Starkes, 1999) have indicated that much greater priority is given by both expert and less experienced players to the monitoring of movements of the ball carrier and team mates than to the position and movements of defenders, this suggests the intriguing, but at this point speculative, notion that it may be the unattended or less attended elements of the pattern (the defensive player positions) that may actively promote transfer of expertise effects. We propose here two experiments to further examine transferability of natural movement patterns and to extend the tentative observations from the Abernethy et al. (2005) study. The first experiment involes a training intervention with stimuli of differing levels of domain specificity. The second experiment uses a manipulation of attentional set to determine whether transfer of recall and recognition across related sports patterns is indeed dependent upon whether the pattern elements are attended or unattended. Both studies will provide direct evidence, which is currently lacking, regarding the magnitude and possible mechanisms for cross-domain learning and transfer of movement pattern recall and recognition skills. |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Abernethy A.B., Wright M. and Jackson R.C., Activation of the brain's mirror network in anticipatory tasks., Proceedings of the annual Conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Niagra Falls. June 2008. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2008, 30 (Suppl.): S61. |
| Abernethy A.B., Developing expertise in sport: How research can inform practice., In: D. Farrow, J. Baker, & C. MacMahon (Eds.), Developing Elite Sports Performers: Lessons from Theory and Practice. London, Routledge, 2008, 1-14. |
| Abernethy A.B. and Mann D., Dual pathways or dueling pathways for visual anticipation? A response to van der Kamp, Rivas, van Doorn & Savelsbergh., International Journal of Sport Psychology. 2008, 39: 136-141. |
| Abernethy A.B., Editorial Advisory Board Member, Journal of Sports Sciences 2007-2008. 2008. |
| Abernethy A.B., Editorial Board Member, Current Psychology of Cognition 2007-2008. 2008. |
| Abernethy A.B., Zawi K. and Jackson R.C., Expertise and attunement to kinematic constraints., Perception. 2008, 37: 931-948. |
| Abernethy A.B. and Zawi K., Pick-up of essential kinematics underpins expert perception and action., Journal of Motor Behavior. 2007, 39: 353-367. |
| Abernethy A.B., The identification and development of essential attributes for expert sports performance., In: D. Hackfort (Ed.), Striving for Excellence: First Aspire Sports Science Congress. Morgantown, WV, Fitness Information Technology, 2007, 21-28. |
| Abernethy A.B., The pathways and processes from beginner to champion - multi-disciplinary examinations of practice and other factors essential to the development of sports expertise., Invited keynote presentation at the International Scientific Symposium on Elite Young Athletes - Biopsychosocial Approaches to Sport Excellence. Hong Kong Sports Institute, Hong Kong.. 2008. |
| Abernethy A.B., The perceptual skills of expert athletes., Invited keynote presentation presented at the Fechner Day 07 Satellite workshop on Perception and Performance in Real, Complex Environments. International Society for Psychophysics, Fukuoka, Japan.. 2007. |
| Abernethy A.B., Masters R.S.W. and Zachry T.L., Using Biomechanical feedback to enhance skill learning and performance., In: R. Bartlett & Y. Hong (Eds.), Handbook of Biomechanics and Human Movement Science. Oxon, Routledge, 2008, 581-593. |
| Gorman A., Abernethy A.B. and Farrow D., The anticipatory nature of expert pattern perception., Proceedings of the annual Conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Niagra Falls. June 2008. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology.. 2008, 30 (Suppl.): S82. |
| Jackson R.C., van der Kamp G.J. and Abernethy A.B., Experts do, experts see? Common coding versus perceptual experience in anticipation skill., Proceedings of the annual Conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Niagra Falls. June 2008. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology.. 2008, 30 (Suppl.): S95. |
| MacDonald D., King J., Côté J. and Abernethy A.B., Birthplace effects on the development of female athletic talent., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2007. |
| Mann D., Abernethy A.B. and Farrow D., Interception enhances anticipation of advance kinematic information., Proceedings of the annual Conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Niagra Falls. June 2008. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2008, 30 (Suppl.): S108. |
| Müller S. and Abernethy A.B., The information for interception: An in-situ examination of the timing of visual information pick-up by cricket batsmen of different skill levels., Proceedings of the annual Conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Niagra Falls. June 2008. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2008, 30 (Suppl.): S111. |
| Müller S. and Abernethy A.B., Validity and reliability of a simple categorical tool for the assessment of interceptive skill., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2007. |
| Wong W.L., Masters R.S.W., Maxwell J.P. and Abernethy A.B., Reinvestment and falls in community-dwelling older adults., Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2008, 22: 410-414. |
| Yan J., Abernethy A.B. and Thomas J.R., Developmental and biomechanical characteristics of motor skill learning., In: R. Bartlett & Y. Hong (Eds.), Handbook of Biomechanics and Human Movement Science. Oxon, Routledge, 2008, 565-580. |
| Researcher : Cerin E |
| Project Title: | Development of an electronic diary to measure physical activity patterns and time use |
| Investigator(s): | Cerin E |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 10/2006 |
| Abstract: |
| Engagement in physical activity is important for the prevention and management of disabling and socially costly diseases, including type II diabetes, cardiovascular disease, osteoarthritis and breast and colon cancer (Blair et al., 1994). To reliably describe dose-response relationships between physical activity and health outcomes and to better understand the personal, social and environmental determinants of participation, it is essential to obtain accurate measures of the relevant physical activity behaviours. Self-report instruments are the most common measure of physical activity, especially, in population-based research (Matthews, 2002). They are inexpensive, easy to administer and able to capture quantitative (intensity, duration, frequency of physical activity) and qualitative information (type and context). Physical activity diaries are considered to be the most accurate self-report technique. When compared to global self-reports (brief measures of habitual activity patterns) and recall questionnaires (measures that quantify physical activity patterns in the recent past), the advantages of diaries are that they provide rich detail about the diverse range, settings, duration and temporal patterns of physical activities that individuals encounter in their daily lives. Additionally, they minimize cognitive difficulties of recalling past physical activity behaviours. Although diaries can provide detailed information on physical activity behaviour, they have limitations. For instance, scoring such diaries (comprising activity categorisation of open-ended responses and assignment of metabolic rates to reported activity) is a very expensive and labour-intensive activity. Additionally, the reliability and validity of the measure can be negatively affected by the scorers’ subjective interpretations of the participants’ responses. This has major implications for the study of the relationships between physical activity and health outcomes, where measurement error remains a major impediment to further progress (Blair et al., 1994; Matthews, 2002). The aim of this project is to overcome the above limitations of physical activity diaries by developing an electronic diary system (using Personal Digital Assistants – PDAs; ‘Palm-top’ computers), which would allow individuals to record physical activity patterns (type, context, duration) using a flexible set of pre-defined categories of physical activity and automatically associate a reported physical activity with its approximate metabolic rate (energy expenditure). The project will consist of two stages. The development stage will involve the construction of a PDA-compatible, user-friendly interactive program that would allow participants to record their physical activity and inactivity patterns (type, context and duration). The validation stage will examine the reliability and validity of the electronic diary system. |
| Project Title: | Development and validation of measures to study the effects of the built environment on walking in Hong Kong senior residents using a convenience sample |
| Investigator(s): | Macfarlane DJ, Sit HP, Johnston JM, Ho DSY, Ho KS, Cerin E |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Health and Health Services Research Fund - Full Grants |
| Start Date: | 10/2006 |
| Abstract: |
| To develop/adapt and validate interviewer-administered self-report measures of (a) physical environmental exposure factors shown to be related to walking (residential density, diversity of and access to destinations, aesthetics, traffic, crime, walking infrastructure, street connvectivity, based on the short form of the Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale); (b) walking within and outside the neighbourhood (based on the RESIDE's Neighbourhood Physical Activity Questionnaire) for a senior Chinese-speaking population. |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Cerin E., Leslie E., Owen N. and Bauman A., Applying GIS in physical activity research: Community 'walkability' and walking behaviours , In: Lai PC and Mak SH, GIS for Health and the Environment: Development in the Asia Pacific Regions. Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 2007, 72-89. |
| Cole R., Leslie E., Donald M., Cerin E. and Owen N., Residential proximity to school and the active travel choices of parents, Health Promotion Journal of Australia. 2007, 18(2): 127-134. |
| Leslie E., Cerin E., du Toit L., Owen N. and Bauman A., Objectively assessing 'walkability' of local communities: Using GIS to identify the relevant environmental attributes, In: Lai PC and Mak SH, GIS for Health and the Environment: Development in the Asia Pacific Regions. Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 2007, 90-104. |
| Mathews R., Hanrahan S. and Cerin E., Self-reflection as an intervention in dance to influence achievement goal orientations and intrinsic motivation, 17th Annual Meeting of teh International Association for Dance Medicine & Science, Canberra, Australia. 2007. |
| du Toit L., Cerin E., Leslie E. and Owen N., Does walking in the neighbourhood enhance local sociability?, Urban Studies. 2007, 44(9): 1-19. |
| Researcher : Chu YW |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Chu Y.W., McManus A.M. and Hu Y., Short-Duration Patterning Of Physical Activity And Biomechanical Walking Efficiency In Lean And Overweight Children, The XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting Children And Exercise, 5-9 September 2007, Estonia. 2007. |
| Chu Y.W., McManus A.M. and Hu Y., Short-duration patterning of physical activity and biomechanical efficiency., In: Jürimäe T., Armstrong N., Jürimäe J., Children and Exercise XXIV.. 2008, 154-157. |
| Researcher : Chu YW |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Chu Y.W., McManus A.M. and Hu Y., Short-Duration Patterning Of Physical Activity And Biomechanical Walking Efficiency In Lean And Overweight Children, The XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting Children And Exercise, 5-9 September 2007, Estonia. 2007. |
| Chu Y.W., McManus A.M. and Hu Y., Short-duration patterning of physical activity and biomechanical efficiency., In: Jürimäe T., Armstrong N., Jürimäe J., Children and Exercise XXIV.. 2008, 154-157. |
| Researcher : Jackson RC |
| Project Title: | Attentional demands of anticipation in perceptual skills. |
| Investigator(s): | Jackson RC, Abernethy AB |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 07/2005 |
| Abstract: |
| One of the defining characteristics of expertise in skills such as driving a car or returning a tennis serve is the ability to anticipate events from advance visual cues. An extensive body of research has focused on documenting the nature of differences between expert and less-skilled performers in these skills (e.g., Abernethy, Wood, & Parks, 1999; Jackson & Gudgeon, 2004; Poulter, Jackson, Wann, & Berry, under review) and has generated a rich body of behavioural data as well as helping to delineate the visual cues upon which skilled anticipation is based. However, it has not furthered our understanding of the attentional processes underlying skilled anticipation. The importance of this question relates to a growing body of literature which indicates that the tendency for individuals to attend to the step-by-step processes that normally run off automatically is one of the causes of skill failure under stress (Beilock & Carr, 2001). The first step in ascertaining whether a similar process could cause skill failure in perceptual-based anticipatory skills is to gain an understanding of the attentional demands of skilled anticipation. This will also help better inform the debate over the merits of less directive approaches to perceptual training (Farrow & Abernethy, 2002; Jackson, 2003; Jackson & Farrow, under review). To date, only two studies have examined the attentional demands of anticipation. These have produced equivocal findings. On the one hand, Goulet, Bard, and Fleury (1992) found that a concurrent secondary task negatively affected the anticipatory performance of both experts and novices. More recently, Rowe and McKenna (2001) found that performing a concurrent random letter generation task was more detrimental to the anticipatory performance of novice tennis players than their more-skilled counterparts. A limitation of the Rowe and McKenna study is that novice and expert performers responded differently to the secondary task instructions, which may have confounded results. Specifically, there was a tendency for novices to generate more letters than the experts. In addition, neither of these studies used the temporal or spatial / cue occlusion techniques that have proven to be reliable discriminators of expert and novice anticipation (e.g., Abernethy, Gill, Parks, & Packer, 2001). Accordingly, the primary objective of the proposed basic research is to assess the attentional demands associated with performance on temporal and cue occlusion anticipation tests. References not included in Section V: Abernethy, B., Gill, D., Parks, S. L., & Packer, S. T. (2001). Expertise and the perception of kinematic and situational probability information. Perception, 30, 233-252. Abernethy, B., Wood, J. M., & Parks, S. (1999). Can the anticipatory skills of experts be learned by novices? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70, 313-318. Beilock, S. L., & Carr, T. H. (2001). On the fragility of skilled performance: What governs choking under pressure? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 701-725. Farrow, D., & Abernethy, B. (2002). Can anticipatory skills be learned through implicit video-based perceptual training? Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 471-485. Goulet, C., Bard, C., & Fleury, M. (1989). Expertise differences in preparing to return a tennis serve: A visual information processing approach. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11, 382-398. Rowe, R. M., & McKenna, F. P. (2001). Skilled anticipation in real-world tasks: Measurement of attentional demands in the domain of tennis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7, 60-67. |
| Project Title: | Verbal Overshadowing in the Recognition of Motion |
| Investigator(s): | Jackson RC, Abernethy AB |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 04/2007 |
| Abstract: |
| ‘Verbal overshadowing’ refers to the phenomenon in which describing a previously seen complex stimulus (e.g., a picture of a face) impairs later recognition of that stimulus (Schooler & Engstler-Schooler, 1990). In the original study, participants viewed an image of a face and half were then asked to give a detailed description of the face they had viewed. When subsequently given a forced-choice recognition test, participants who had described the face were less accurate at picking out the studied face from other visually similar distracter stimuli. By contrast, visualizing the previously studied face did not impair recognition. It has subsequently been shown that verbalization also impairs insight problem solving (Schooler, Ohlsson, & Brooks, 1993), affective judgments (Wilson & Schooler, 1991), and memory for taste (Melcher & Schooler, 1996). While the verbal overshadowing effect is now well established, it has been limited to recognising stimuli in which kinematic information is absent or irrelevant. For example, most researchers have used still images during the study and test phases, and those using video presentations during the study phase (e.g., Macrae & Lewis, 2002) have used an identification task (e.g., face recognition) in which movement-related information is absent. A key issue is whether the findings apply to skills in which performance is based on the ability to perceive information contained within the movement kinematics. Early evidence for the importance of motion for making perceptual judgments was evident in studies showing that observers could discriminate between different weights being lifted (Runeson & Frykholm, 1981) and the gender of walkers (Cutting et al., 1978) simply by viewing ‘point-light’ displays in which the relative motion of only the joint centres could be seen. In the domain of sport, there is now considerable evidence that the ability to anticipate the actions of others similarly relies on the perception of advance kinematic information (e.g., Abernethy et al., 2001). Thus, skilled performers are better at recalling and recognising patterns of movement from within their domain of expertise. In explaining the verbal overshadowing effect, it has been suggested that the act of describing a complex stimulus causes participants to focus on easy-to-verbalise local information (e.g., the specific features of a face) rather than the difficult-to-verbalise global information (e.g., the way in which the features of a face are configured). In support, it is well established that face recognition is enhanced when the image is processed in a holistic manner emphasising configural rather than featural information (Tanaka, 1993). In contrast, there is evidence that the verbal overshadowing effect is attenuated when the test stimuli have distinctive features that better lend themselves to featural processing (Wickham & Swift, 2006). Further evidence that it is the change in processing orientation rather than verbalization per se that underlies the verbal overshadowing effect came from a study by Macrae and Lewis (2002). In the experiment, participants were shown a 30-s video depicting a simulated bank robbery. After watching the video, the processing orientation of the participants was manipulated by having them report either the global or local identity of a series of Navon (1977) letters (e.g., a large letter ‘T’ composed of Ss), or read aloud (the neutral condition) for 10 minutes. Macrae and Lewis found that participants’ ability to recognise the face of the bank robber was significantly impaired in the local processing condition (30%), and enhanced in the global processing condition (83%) relative to the neutral processing condition (60%). A second key issue, therefore, is whether processing orientation can enhance as well as impair the recognition of kinematic information. The immediate purpose of the proposed studies is to examine whether the verbal overshadowing effect generalises to stimuli for which recognition relies upon the perception of kinematic information. The wider purpose of the research is to understand better the role of memory function and processing orientation in skills supported by motion perception. References Abernethy, B., Gill, D., Parks, S. L., & Packer, S. T. (2001). Expertise and the perception of kinematic and situational probability information. Perception, 30, 233-252. Cutting, J. E., Proffitt, D. R., & Kozlowski, L. T. (1978). A biomechanical invariant for gait perception. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 4, 356-372. Macrae, C. N., & Lewis, H. L. (2002). Do I know you? Processing orientation and face recognition. Psychological Science, 13(2), 194-196. Melcher, J. M., & Schooler, J. W. (1996). The misremembrance of wines past: Verbal and perceptual expertise differentially mediate verbal overshadowing of taste memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 35, 231-245. Navon, D. (1977). Forest before the trees: The precedence of global features in visual perception. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 353-383. Runeson, S., & Frykholm, G. (1981). Visual perception of lifted weight. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 7, 733-740. Schooler, J. W., & Engstler-Schooler, T. Y. (1990). Verbal Overshadowing of Visual Memories - Some Things Are Better Left Unsaid. Cognitive Psychology, 22(1), 36-71. Schooler, J. W., Ohlsson, S., & Brooks, K. (1993). Thoughts beyond words: When language overshadows insight. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 2, 166-183. Tanaka, J. W. (1993). Parts and wholes in face recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 42, 225-245. Wickham, L. H. V., & Swift, H. (2006). Articulatory suppression attenuates the verbal overshadowing effect: A role for verbal encoding in face identification. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(2), 157-169. Wilson, T. D., & Schooler, J. W. (1991). Thinking too much: Introspection can reduce the quality of preferances and decisions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 181-192. |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Abernethy A.B., Wright M. and Jackson R.C., Activation of the brain's mirror network in anticipatory tasks., Proceedings of the annual Conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Niagra Falls. June 2008. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2008, 30 (Suppl.): S61. |
| Abernethy A.B., Zawi K. and Jackson R.C., Expertise and attunement to kinematic constraints., Perception. 2008, 37: 931-948. |
| Jackson R.C., van der Kamp G.J. and Abernethy A.B., Experts do, experts see? Common coding versus perceptual experience in anticipation skill., Proceedings of the annual Conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Niagra Falls. June 2008. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology.. 2008, 30 (Suppl.): S95. |
| Masters R.S.W., van der Kamp G.J. and Jackson R.C., Getting a bit on the side - penalty kick direction is influenced implicitly by the position of the goalkeeper, 12th European Congress of Sport Psychology. Halkidiki, Greece, 2007. |
| Researcher : Lam WK |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Poolton J.M., Maxwell J.P., Lam W.K. and Masters R.S.W., Distribution of attentional resources as a function of learning technique: Evidence from probe reaction times. , 12th European Congress of Sport Psychology, Halkidiki, Greece.. 2007. |
| Researcher : Leung YY |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Eves F.F., Masters R.S.W., McManus A.M., Leung Y.Y., Wong P. and White M., Contextual barriers to lifestyle physical activity interventions in Hong Kong, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2008, 40: 965-971. |
| Researcher : Ling FCM |
| List of Research Outputs |
| McManus A.M., Masters R.S.W., Yu C.W., Sit H.P., Ling F.C.M. and Laukkenen R., Using Heart Rate Feedback To Enhance Physical Activity In Children, The Xxiv Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting Children And Exercise, Tallinn, Estonia. 2007. |
| McManus A.M., Masters R.S.W., Yu C.W., Sit H.P., Ling F.C.M. and Laukkenen R., Using heart rate feedback to enhance physical activity in children. , XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology, Tallinn, Estonia.. 2007. |
| McManus A.M., Masters R.S.W., Laukkanen R.M., Yu C.W., Sit H.P. and Ling F.C.M., Using heart-rate feedback to increase physical activity in children, Preventive Medicine. United States, Academic Press, 2008, 47: 402-408. |
| Researcher : Macfarlane DJ |
| Project Title: | Enhancing elite performance by development of a biofeedback instrumentation system |
| Investigator(s): | Macfarlane DJ |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Small Project Funding |
| Start Date: | 01/2006 |
| Abstract: |
| In order for an any athlete to try to maximize his/her performance it is essential that the athlete receives appropriate and meaningful feedback. Often this feedback is based purely on the coach’s subjective assessment of the athlete’s performance during visual observations in training or competition (Shakespear, 1980). Such feedback is temporally limited and relies heavily on both the recall ability of the coach and athlete, although it can be aided by video-recording, which itself has the limitation of being time-consuming and somewhat cumbersome for the coach to operate in an active coaching environment. A more ideal coaching tool is to develop an instrumented data-acquisition system based around an ergometer that accurately simulates the athletic event, which not only incorporates on-line data recording as well as providing instantaneous “biofeedback” to the coach/athlete, but can also provide detailed post-hoc analysis. This type of objective assessment using empirically acquired data has the potential to substantially aid the development of sub-elite athletes as well as to fine-tuning the peak performances of elite athletes, but requires the development of specialist hardware and software. This proposal is to extend the development of an existing data-acquisition system (very early development work funded by a HKU new staff member grant in 1994, which was then substantially revised with new hardware/software using an externally funded grant in 2003). In the sport of rowing it is commonly regarded that the leg-drive phase of the rowing stroke is critical to the development of power since it contributes the largest component towards boat velocity (Lamb, 1989). However, certain issues on the leg-drive still remain unanswered within the international community, with a recent expert review of the area (Soper & Hume, 2004) concluding that future research should focus on “the influence of foot-stretcher positions on rowing performance” and “can coaches or selectors use force application profiles to reliably or validly predict a rowers performance”. These are clearly two key research questions that need to be investigated by the international research community in relation to expert rowing performance. From these critical comments we propose to investigate (i) what is the most ideal position of the feet during this leg-drive phase, and (ii) whether the force applied to the seat (owing to the lifting-action of the leg-drive) would serve as a simple and reliable proxy of an efficient rowing technique (coaches often refer to this as the rowers ability to “hang”). This current proposal is to incorporate the addition of specialist hardware and software to an existing ergometer to allow for detailed investigations on the effects of how the position of the foot-stretcher can influence power development, and to determine if the force applied to the seat was an acceptable proxy for effective leg drive and power development using an instrumented ergometer system designed to provide real-time biofeedback to the coach and athlete. |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Cheng Y.H., Chou K.L., Macfarlane D.J. and Chi I., Patterns of physical exercise and contributing factors among Hong Kong older adults, Hong Kong Medical Journal. 2007, 13 (4 Suppl): S7-S12. |
| Deng H., Macfarlane D.J., Thomas G.N., Lao X., Jiang C.Q., Cheng K.K. and Lam T.H., Reliability and Validity of the IPAQ-Chinese: The Guangzhou Biobank Cohort Study, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2008, 40(2): 303-307. |
| Macfarlane D.J., Pilot investigation on the tracking of physical activity in Hong Kong children. , Health Research Symposium, Hong Kong Academy of Medicine, Hong Kong. . 2007. |
| Macfarlane D.J., Chan D., Chan K.L., Ho E.Y.K. and Lee C.Y.C., Preliminary Evidence To Suggest Accumulating 8,000 Steps/Day May Meet Physical Activity Promotion Guideline, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2008, 40 (5 Suppl): S248. |
| Macfarlane D.J., University Teaching Fellowship, The University of Hong Kong. 2008. |
| Macfarlane D.J., “Clinical Exercise Physiology”: , Commissioned Training on Exercise Therapy & Rehabilitation: Coordinating Committee on Physiotherapy; Hong Kong Hospital Authority. . Caritas Medical Centre, Shamsuipo, Hong, 2008. |
| Researcher : Masters RSW |
| Project Title: | Enhancing motor skills through instructional manipulations: is the learner paying attention? |
| Investigator(s): | Masters RSW, Maxwell JP |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 02/2004 |
| Abstract: |
| To conduct a test of the competing theories; to ascertain the validity of external/internal feedback; to establish the process that leads to enhanced performance. |
| Project Title: | Brief periods of implicit motor learning: Performance advantages or disadvantages? |
| Investigator(s): | Masters RSW |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 06/2005 |
| Abstract: |
| A number of advantages have been shown for implicit motor learning (see Masters & Maxwell, 2004 for a recent review). These advantages include robustness under (1) secondary task loading (multi-tasking) (2) psychological stress and (3) potentially, physiological stress. Maxwell, Masters, Kerr, and Weedon (2001) suggested that an effective means by which to cause implicit motor learning is to reduce learning errors. They showed that participants learning to play golf in an errorless condition committed significantly fewer errors throughout learning than those in an errorful condition. Not only was performance superior in retention, but imposition of a secondary cognitive load resulted in performance deterioration for errorful learners but not errorless learners. Paradoxically, verbal recall in both conditions was not different, with participants reporting substantial amounts of task relevant declarative information. Access to task relevant knowledge (or metaknowledge) is not expected in implicit learning. Upon closer inspection of their data, Maxwell et al found that error commission in the errorless condition occurred with considerably greater frequency from putting distances greater than or equal to 1 m. From distances of 25 cm, 50 cm or 75 cm few errors were committed. Maxwell et al speculated that hypothesis testing occurred only after the first 150 trials of learning, as the task became more complex. The build up of declarative knowledge, therefore, would be confined to later trials. In order to examine whether this was the case, a second study was devised in which hypothesis testing behaviour was assessed during 150 trials of learning either from 25, 50, and 75 cm consecutively (errorless learning) or from 175, 150 and 125 cm (errorful learning). Following the learning phase, a transfer task was completed from 100cm, in which working memory was again loaded with a secondary tone counting task. Relative to a separate control group who did not perform the secondary task, the errorful learners exhibited significant performance deterioration; conversely, performance in the errorless condition remained robust, consistent with findings from the previous experiment. Fewer rules associated with hypothesis testing were reported by the errorless group, supporting the idea that errorless learners in the first experiment had accrued declarative knowledge only after completing the first 150 trials. Additionally, video analysis showed that fewer visible adjustments to technique were implemented by the errorless group, supporting the idea that they did not test hypotheses over shorter distances. Maxwell et al concluded that participants in the errorless condition of Experiment 1 learned implicitly during the first 150 trials. This implies that initial implicit acquisition of a motor skill allows later performance to take place with little input from working memory despite subsequent accumulation of declarative knowledge. Work in the cognitive literature by Reber, Kassin, Lewis and Cantor (1980) indicates that explicit introduction of rules underlying an artificial grammar structure is detrimental to learning that has previously occurred implicitly. Matthews, Buss, Stanley, Blanchard-Fields, Cho and Druhan (1989), on the other hand, examined various combinations of implicit and explicit learning in artificial grammar learning and found that a performance enhancing synergistic learning effect occurred when participants initially learnt implicitly then explicitly. Matthews et al argued that the superior learning effect was likely to be a consequence of implicit learning mechanisms facilitating the generation of successful hypotheses during the explicit phase. These contrasting findings have not been addressed directly in the domain of motor learning. The objective of the present study will be to replicate Maxwell et al’s findings by explicitly examining the effect of combining explicit motor learning with previous implicit motor learning. |
| Project Title: | Declarative and nondeclarative components of an observationally acquired motor act. |
| Investigator(s): | Masters RSW, Patil NG, Lo CY |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 08/2006 |
| Abstract: |
| Traditional theories of motor learning postulate that skills are initially acquired explicitly via cognitive processing, which is verbally or declaratively based, and become automated as learning proceeds (Anderson, 1987; Fitts & Posner, 1967). Once skilled, the performer is said to execute complex responses with minimal attention to the specific ‘declarative’ knowledge involved, because the underlying information processing has become ‘procedural’ (Salmoni, 1989). It is now widely acknowledged that in certain circumstances declarative knowledge can be a hindrance to the expert performer. Numerous studies have, for example, concluded that verbal instructions to provide explicit, declarative knowledge do not optimise skill acquisition and, in some cases, may degrade performance and transfer (e.g., Baumeister, 1984; Hardy, Mullen & Jones, 1996; Hodges & Lee, 1999). The verbal knowledge provided by instructions may act to decrease performance by making the actor aware of information about their movements that is normally processed more efficiently outside working memory (Masters, Law & Maxwell, 2002; Masters & Maxwell, 2004). A growing literature describes and validates techniques which encourage nondeclarative (implicit) motor learning by reducing the amount of explicit, declarative movement information accessible to working memory during skill acquisition (e.g., dual-task learning - Masters, 1992; Hardy et al, 1996; MacMahon & Masters, 2003; feedback manipulation - Masters, Maxwell & Eves, 2001; Maxwell, Masters & Eves, 2003; errorless learning - Maxwell, Masters, Kerr & Weedon, 2001; analogy learning - Masters, 2000; Liao & Masters, 2001). These techniques have demonstrated that motor skills can be learned in such a way that the performer has minimal access to explicit, declarative knowledge about how to perform the task, with neither psychological stress to perform well nor the imposition of a secondary task load resulting in degradation of the motor skill. No work has considered the impact of traditional observational methods of learning on the extent of declarative and nondeclarative knowledge accrual. Observational learning refers to a participant gaining information by watching attentively while the task-to-be-learned is carried out. Observational learning has been shown to result in some characteristics of non-declarative learning (Vinter & Perruchet, 2002); however, it has been shown that participants can nevertheless access explicit, declarative knowledge about the ‘key’ features of the task (Howard, Mutter & Howard, 1992; Willingham, 1999). The proposed study will examine a variety of observational learning methods in a surgical suturing and knot-tying task. Technical skills training in surgery generally relies on a Halstedian apprenticeship model, in which initial observation of the master surgeon is followed by participation in a surgical procedure under supervision (Wanzel et al, 2002). |
| Project Title: | Implicit visual awareness: not one, but two objective thresholds? |
| Investigator(s): | Masters RSW, Maxwell JP |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 10/2007 |
| Abstract: |
| A considerable body of research has demonstrated that ‘we’ can acquire nondeclarative knowledge of abstract underlying rules of a task without ‘consciously’ being aware of what we have learned (e.g., see Stadler & Frensch, 1998). Nondeclarative knowledge is not always well developed, however, and may be subordinated by conscious, declarative strategies that moderate its efficacy (Bayley, Frascino & Squire, 2005). In an ongoing programme of research Masters, Maxwell and colleagues have developed techniques specifically to discourage purposeful acquisition of declarative knowledge during motor learning. Maxwell, Masters and Eves (2003) showed, for example, that elimination of visual (and auditory) feedback regarding the outcome of an action restricts hypothesis testing but does not prevent the development of coordinated movement. Attunement of the movement to the environmental constraints of the task (e.g., specification of direction and velocity), however, is disrupted until feedback about the outcome of the movement becomes available (Schmidt, 1975; Whiting, 1984). This finding suggests that it may be preferable to present outcome information in a guise that is unavailable for purposeful hypothesis testing but that, nevertheless, specifies the environmental constraints of the task. The objectives of the proposed work will be to test the utility of feedback information presented below the level of conscious awareness (i.e., subliminally). Although there is much debate regarding whether unconscious learning can be demonstrated (e.g., Shanks & St. John, 1994; Miller, 1991), there is support for the idea that stimuli presented subliminally and perceived without awareness can influence how other stimuli are consciously experienced (e.g., Kemp-Wheeler & Hill, 1988; Marcel, 1983; Merikle, Smilek & Eastwood, 2001). Cheesman and Merikle (1984, 1986), operationalised ‘awareness of a stimulus’ as confidence of being able to distinguish it at greater than chance levels (i.e., not to guess), and demonstrated that stimuli presented at a threshold of awareness at which the participant believes that he or she has not detected any information (i.e., subjective threshold) can influence behaviour, but stimuli presented at a threshold where the participant genuinely can not detect any information (i.e., objective threshold), have no influence on behaviour (Cheesman & Merikle, 1984; Greenwald, 1992; Holender, 1986). Subjective threshold approaches are an engaging method by which to examine phenomenal awareness, and the procedure pioneered by Cheesman and Merikle, and to be employed here, is generally acknowledged to be the most rigorous of those designed to present marginally perceptible (subliminal) stimuli (see Kunimoto, Miller & Pashler, 2001). In typical studies, one of several target stimuli is presented, through a tachistoscope, for various stimulus durations. At long stimulus durations observers can report the target identity - they are aware of what they see and can confidently estimate their accuracy. As the stimulus duration is reduced, confidence decreases until eventually observers will report that they can no longer see the stimulus and are guessing its identity. Typically, at this subjective threshold participants perform at above chance levels despite their apparent lack of conscious awareness, implying that ‘guesses’ are influenced by perception. If the stimulus duration is further reduced to the objective threshold, performance will drop to chance levels, at which the observer must truly guess the identity of the stimulus because perception is absent (Cheesman & Merikle, 1984; Holender, 1986). Dienes and Berry (1997) proposed that this conceptualization of a subjective threshold provides a useful marker of implicit learning, in that it demarcates the point at which purposeful, explicit learning becomes impossible. While we are not aware of any work that has directly manipulated the perceptibility of stimuli in order to influence the nature of motor learning, effective movement in the face of distorted (conscious) perception of the environment has been reported in different tasks. Early studies revealed that participants were sensitive to changes in load (Henry, 1953) and sequelae of their own movements (Hefferline, Keenan & Harford, 1959) without any awareness of this sensitivity. More recently, changes in gait (Prokop, Shubert & Berger, 1997) and rhythmical arm movements (Thaut & Kenyon, 2003) have been linked to subtle changes in visual and auditory stimuli respectively, of which participants appear to be unaware. These demonstrations of effective movement in the face of degraded or misguided conscious perception of the stimulus environment imply that we can act upon feedback of which we are not fully or confidently aware. The studies that we are proposing are designed to ask whether effective movement can stem from feedback that is presented at a marginally perceived threshold of awareness, and whether accretion of declarative knowledge is subdued. |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Abernethy A.B., Masters R.S.W. and Zachry T.L., Using Biomechanical feedback to enhance skill learning and performance., In: R. Bartlett & Y. Hong (Eds.), Handbook of Biomechanics and Human Movement Science. Oxon, Routledge, 2008, 581-593. |
| Eves F.F., Masters R.S.W., McManus A.M., Leung Y.Y., Wong P. and White M., Contextual barriers to lifestyle physical activity interventions in Hong Kong, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2008, 40: 965-971. |
| Eves F.F., Masters R.S.W. and McManus A.M., Development and validation of prompted stair climbing as an intervention to increase healthy lifestyle activity in Hong Kong, Health Research Symposium 2007: Building bridges between research, policy and practice. Hong Kong, Hong Kong Academy of Medicine, 2007. |
| Masters R.S.W., Applications, advantages and advances in implicit motor learning, Second Anual Meeting of the Australasian Skill Acquisition Research Group. University of Otago, NZ, 2008. |
| Masters R.S.W., Associate Editor, Psychology of Sport & Exercise. Amsterdam, Elsevier, 2007. |
| Masters R.S.W., van der Kamp G.J. and Jackson R.C., Getting a bit on the side - penalty kick direction is influenced implicitly by the position of the goalkeeper, 12th European Congress of Sport Psychology. Halkidiki, Greece, 2007. |
| Masters R.S.W., Implicit motor learning III, New Zealand Academy of Sport North Island. Auckland, NZ, 2008. |
| Masters R.S.W., Implicit motor learning II, New Zealand Academy of Sport North Island. Wellington, NZ, 2008. |
| Masters R.S.W., Implicit motor learning I, New Zealand Academy of Sport South Island. Christchurch, NZ, 2008. |
| Masters R.S.W., Poolton J.M., Maxwell J.P. and Raab M., Implicit motor learning and complex decision making in time constrained environments., Journal of Motor Behavior. Washington DC, Heldref, 2008, 40: 71-79. |
| Masters R.S.W., Lo C.Y., Maxwell J.P. and Patil N.G., Implicit motor learning in surgery: Implications for multi-tasking, In: Warshaw, A.L., Sarr, M.G., Surgery. Elsevier, 2008, 143: 140-145. |
| Masters R.S.W., Poolton J.M. and Maxwell J.P., Stable implicit motor processes despite aerobic locomotor fatigue, Consciousness and Cognition. Elsevier, 2008, 17: 335-338. |
| Masters R.S.W., Symposium Chair, Implicit motor processes in sport, 12th European Congress of Sport Psychology. Halkidiki, Greece, 2007. |
| McManus A.M., Yu C.W., Masters R.S.W. and Laukkenen R., Cardiac Autonomic Function: Associations With Cardiorespriatory Fitness In Children. , 12th Annual Congress Of The European College Of Sport Science, 11 - 14 July 2007, Jyväskylä, Finland. 2007. |
| McManus A.M., Masters R.S.W., Yu C.W., Sit H.P., Ling F.C.M. and Laukkenen R., Using Heart Rate Feedback To Enhance Physical Activity In Children, The Xxiv Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting Children And Exercise, Tallinn, Estonia. 2007. |
| McManus A.M., Masters R.S.W., Yu C.W., Sit H.P., Ling F.C.M. and Laukkenen R., Using heart rate feedback to enhance physical activity in children. , XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology, Tallinn, Estonia.. 2007. |
| McManus A.M., Masters R.S.W., Laukkanen R.M., Yu C.W., Sit H.P. and Ling F.C.M., Using heart-rate feedback to increase physical activity in children, Preventive Medicine. United States, Academic Press, 2008, 47: 402-408. |
| Poolton J.M., Masters R.S.W. and Maxwell J.P., Development of a culturally appropriate analogy for implicit motor learning in a Chinese population, The Sport Psychologist. Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics, 2007, 21: 375-382. |
| Poolton J.M., Maxwell J.P., Lam W.K. and Masters R.S.W., Distribution of attentional resources as a function of learning technique: Evidence from probe reaction times. , 12th European Congress of Sport Psychology, Halkidiki, Greece.. 2007. |
| Poolton J.M., Maxwell J.P., Masters R.S.W. and van der Kamp G.J., Moving with an external focus: Automaticity or simply less demanding?, Bewung and Training. 2007. |
| Rendell M., Farrow D., Masters R.S.W. and Morris T., The role of cognitive effort in blocked and random practice of applied motor skills., North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) Annual Conference. Niagara Falls, 2008. |
| Tse M.A., Masters R.S.W., McManus A.M. and Lo C.Y., The influence of trunk endurance training on postural fatigue during a simulated laparoscopic surgical task, 5th International Conference of the National Strength and Conditioning Association. Atlanta, Georgia, 2007. |
| Tse M.A., Masters R.S.W., McManus A.M., Lo C.Y. and Patil N.G., The influence of trunk endurance training on postural fatigue during laparoscopic surgery , Journal of Endourology. Mary Anne Liebert, 2008, 22: 1053-1058. |
| Wong W.L., Masters R.S.W., Maxwell J.P. and Abernethy A.B., Reinvestment and falls in community-dwelling older adults., Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2008, 22: 410-414. |
| van der Kamp G.J. and Masters R.S.W., The effect of Muller-Lyer illusions on far aiming tasks, 12th European Congress of Sport Psychology. Halkidiki, Greece, 2007. |
| Researcher : Maxwell JP |
| Project Title: | Instruction, errorless learning and rehabilitation: Taking the spanner out of the works? |
| Investigator(s): | Maxwell JP, Beach CL, Masters RSW |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Competitive Earmarked Research Grants (CERG) |
| Start Date: | 10/2004 |
| Abstract: |
| To determine the remaining qualities of errorless learning and compare them with those of explicit learning; to provide use with a clear understanding of the implicit nature of learning without error and a deeper appreciation of implicit motor learning in general. |
| Project Title: | Anger and aggression in sport |
| Investigator(s): | Maxwell JP |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Competitive Earmarked Research Grants (CERG) |
| Start Date: | 01/2006 |
| Abstract: |
| To provide further support for the concurrent validities of English and Chinese language versions of the PASS through a correlational design; to assess predictive validity of the PASS through comparison with observed behaviour; to complete longitudinal observations of athlete behaviour; to validate the use of an emotion control program designed to reduce aggressive tendencies; to evaluate the sensitivity of the PASS to anger and aggression change following an intervention program. |
| Project Title: | Antecedents of adolescent school children's aggressive and antisocial behaviours in sport and society |
| Investigator(s): | Maxwell JP, Sit HP, Sukhodolsky DG |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 03/2006 |
| Abstract: |
| Research examining the antecedents of athlete aggression has led to the development of a number of theories. By far the most popular models used to examine aggression in sport are Frustration-Aggression (Dollard, et al. 1939), Frustration-Aggression revised (Berkowitz, 1993; Baron & Richardson, 1994) and Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1973). The Frustration-Aggression theory proposed that frustration resulted from the blocking of goals or desires and that the build up of frustration inevitably led to behavioural expression through aggressive actions. It was the insistence of inevitability that led to the revision of this theory by, amongst others, Berkowitz (1965). Berkowitz pointed out that not all people respond to frustration with overt aggression; rather, situational cues and learned responses contribute to the probability of aggressive behaviour. Berkowitz (1993) subsequently added cognitive factors to his model allowing emotional responses and personal motivation to contribute to the propensity for aggressive behaviour. The role of learned behaviour is undoubtedly important to the appearance of aggression in sport and general society (Bandura, 1973) and forms a major component of the current research proposal. Bandura and colleagues demonstrated that exposure to a violent model increased the tendency of children to behave aggressively through imitation of the model’s actions. It is likely that exposure to violence and antisocial behaviour outside sport will be linked to an increased tendency and acceptance of aggressive and unsporting behaviours on the pitch. Individuals who are involved in ‘aggressive’ contact sports may have a history of violence exposure. This may be particularly true of younger athletes who are more easily influenced by their environment and behaviour of peers. Conversely, recent research in Canada has demonstrated a number of benefits of sport participation, including strengthening relationships within families and communities (Conference Board of Canada, 2005) which might be predicted to reduce aggressive behaviours and/or the negative health consequences of exposure. Hostile and antisocial behaviour amongst juveniles and adolescents is a common problem in many societies, with several experiencing marked increases in the level and frequency of violence in particular (Koop & Lundberg, 1992; Schwab-Stone, et al., 1998). Hong Kong is not immune to such problems. The number of juveniles (age 10-15) and adolescents (16-20) arrested in Hong Kong has remained stable over the past five years at around 3000 incidents for each age group (HK Police Department statistics, 2005). This figure is likely to be a small percentage of actual frequency of deviant behaviour since detection rates are estimated at a maximum of 40% and discipline of minors is likely to take place within the family. Criminal, delinquent, and violent behaviour amongst juveniles and adolescents are predicted by exposure, victimisation, family conflict, hopelessness, depression, severity of corporal punishment, diminished sense of purpose, and lower life expectancy (Du Rant et al., 1994). Antisocial behaviours are intimately linked with other problems, such as drug and alcohol abuse or family violence. A secondary problem to the development of violent behaviour in juveniles and adolescents is the effect of exposure on health. Previous research has tended to focus on acute trauma; however, evidence is accumulating linking chronic exposure to adverse conditions with a number of disorders, such as depression and anxiety (Freeman et al., 1993; Martinez & Richters, 1993), as well as a range of psychiatric symptoms and indicators of poor adjustment (e.g. internalising negative emotions; Fitzpatrick & Boldizar, 1993; Schwab-Stone et al., 1999). This can be particularly prevalent in younger children who lack the social and cognitive skills to cope with traumatic events (Schwab-Stone et al., 1999). Social, economic, and personality variables have been implicated in the development of antisocial behaviours with a considerable amount of research supporting each stance, but little has been concluded about how these factors impact upon behaviour within sport. Sport has strict codes of conduct, generally restricting or forbidding aggressive behaviours, that may provide essential coping skills to participants (e.g. respect for law, conformity, friendship, socialisation, and cooperation). The key aims of this research are: a) To evaluate the degree of exposure (as a perpetrator, victim or witness) Hong Kong juveniles and adolescents have to aggressive and antisocial behaviours (outside sport). b) Compare degree of exposure with psychological well being and personal attitudes (i.e. positive or negative) towards the identified behaviours. c) Establish the degree to which sport participation might counteract or aggravate negative effects (e.g. increased negative behaviours or health problems). d) Finally, assess the impact of social factors on the appearance of aggression within sport. |
| Project Title: | The role of working memory in movement control |
| Investigator(s): | Maxwell JP, Masters RSW |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 04/2007 |
| Abstract: |
| Masters and Maxwell (2004) argued that motor skill acquisition and subsequent performance can be subsumed by two cognitive processes, a declarative pathway that is reliant on the availability of working memory and a non-declarative (or procedural) pathway that functions independent of working memory availability. Masters and Maxwell further argued, on the basis of extensive experimental evidence (Beilock & Carr, 2001; Liao & Masters, 2001; Masters, 1992; Maxwell, Masters, & Eves, 2000, Maxwell, Masters, Kerr, and Weedon, 2001, Maxwell, Masters, & Eves, 2003; Wulf & Weigelt, 1997), that the role of the declarative pathway in motor skill acquisition and online control of movement should be minimised. Working memory is a mental module that has been implicated in the identification, correction, and recall of performance errors (Baddeley & Wilson, 1994). In a typical discovery learning situation, the learner formulates a hypothesis (in working memory) about the correct action to achieve a goal, assesses the outcome (again possibly involving working memory) and integrates this information with the original hypothesis to inform future attempts. Therefore, working memory is likely to be most active when errors are frequent and, eventually, the performer comes to rely on its availability (Masters & Maxwell, 2004; Maxwell, Masters, & Eves, 2003). When errors are infrequent, the participation of working memory is likely reduced or minimal (Maxwell, Masters, Kerr, & Weedon, 2001). Support for this contention has been provided in a number of publications (e.g. Poolton, Masters, & Maxwell, 2006) and experiments, conducted as part of a previous CERG grant award to the PI, that are currently under review (e.g. Maxwell, Masters, & Lam, 2006). Unfortunately, evidence for the involvement of working memory in performance of motor skills was indirect and gross in nature. Working memory was assessed using reaction time and secondary tasks performed in conjunction with the primary motor task. Performance deterioration on either the primary or secondary task was taken as an indication of working memory activity. However, working memory is a short term, limited capacity system that was originally designed as a three component model. The model comprised an attentional controller termed the central executive (Baddeley, 1996) served by two slave systems, the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop. The visuospatial sketchpad is assumed to hold visual and spatial information from sensory input and manipulate temporal images (Logie, 1995), while the phonological loop maintains verbal information by sub-vocal repetition (Baddeley, 1999). More recently a fourth component, the episodic buffer, has been added to the model. It was proposed that the buffer integrates and stores information in a multi-dimensional code from the two slave systems and long term memory (Baddeley, 2000). The central executive is believed to combine information from the three subsidiary systems to generate coherent declarative output (Baddeley, 2000). Thus it is possible that all, one, none, or a complex combination of modules contribute to skilled motor performance. The capacity of working memory also varies across individuals. According to Beilock and Carr (2005), high working memory capacity is an attribute of expert performers of cognitive skills and may also be true for motoric skills. This assertion is contrary to Masters and Maxwell's claim that motor performance should be independent of working memory resources. Thus, the primary aim of this program of research is to directly test the involvement of working memory in motor skill acquisition and performence. To achieve this aim, three tests of working memory capacity will be evaluated within the local Chinese population: Turner and Engle's (1989) Operation Span (OSPAN), Daneman and Carpenter's (1980) Reading Span (RSPAN), and Hockey and Geffen's (2004) Visuospatial Working Memory Task (VWMT). The OSPAN and RSPAN measure central executive and phonological loop capacity, therefore, combined they provide a measure of verbal working memory whereas the VWMT provides a measure of visual working memory. These measures should be associated with meaningful patterns of results on traditional tests of intelligence (e.g. Multidimensional Aptitude Battery and Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale measuring IQ). Once validated, the relationship between working memory capacity and motor learning can be meaningfully evaluated. Taking Maxwell et al's proposal that errors promote dependence on the availability of working memory, we can predict that when errors are frequent during the learning process, participants with low working memory capacity should perform worse than individuals with a high working memory capacity. However, when errors are infrequent, working memory capacity should bear no relationship with final performance. Thus, learning techniques that reduce, rather than encourage, error should prove more effective for low capacity individuals. |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Chauvel G., Maquestiaux F., Joubert S., Maxwell J.P. and Bertsch J., Older adults can acquire a novel motor skill by minimizing the role of working memory., Cognitive Aging Conference, Atlanta. 2008. |
| Masters R.S.W., Poolton J.M., Maxwell J.P. and Raab M., Implicit motor learning and complex decision making in time constrained environments., Journal of Motor Behavior. Washington DC, Heldref, 2008, 40: 71-79. |
| Masters R.S.W., Lo C.Y., Maxwell J.P. and Patil N.G., Implicit motor learning in surgery: Implications for multi-tasking, In: Warshaw, A.L., Sarr, M.G., Surgery. Elsevier, 2008, 143: 140-145. |
| Masters R.S.W., Poolton J.M. and Maxwell J.P., Stable implicit motor processes despite aerobic locomotor fatigue, Consciousness and Cognition. Elsevier, 2008, 17: 335-338. |
| Maxwell J.P. and Moores E.J., Anger and aggression in competitive athletes, In: E.I. Clausen, Psychology of anger. Hauppauge, NY., Nova Science Publishers Inc., 2007, 203-233. |
| Maxwell J.P., Do undergraduate students' ratings of perceived aggression in sport reflect athletes' self-reported aggression? Comments on Pedersen (2007), Perceptual and Motor Skills. 2007, 105: 1136-1138. |
| Maxwell J.P., Psychometric properties of a Chinese version of the Buss-Warren Aggression Questionnaire., Personaility and Individual Differences.. 2008, 44: 943-953. |
| Maxwell J.P. and Siu O.L., The Chinese Coping Strategies Scale: Relationships with aggression, anger, and rumination in a diverse sample of Hong Kong Chinese adults., Personality and Individual Differences.. 2008, 44: 1049-1059. |
| Moores E...J... and Maxwell J.P., The role of prior exposure on the capture of attention by items in working memory., Visual Cognition. 2008, 16: 675-695. |
| Poolton J.M., Masters R.S.W. and Maxwell J.P., Development of a culturally appropriate analogy for implicit motor learning in a Chinese population, The Sport Psychologist. Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics, 2007, 21: 375-382. |
| Poolton J.M., Maxwell J.P., Lam W.K. and Masters R.S.W., Distribution of attentional resources as a function of learning technique: Evidence from probe reaction times. , 12th European Congress of Sport Psychology, Halkidiki, Greece.. 2007. |
| Poolton J.M., Maxwell J.P., Masters R.S.W. and van der Kamp G.J., Moving with an external focus: Automaticity or simply less demanding?, Bewung and Training. 2007. |
| Wong W.L., Masters R.S.W., Maxwell J.P. and Abernethy A.B., Reinvestment and falls in community-dwelling older adults., Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2008, 22: 410-414. |
| Researcher : McKenzie TL |
| List of Research Outputs |
| McKenzie T.L. and Sit H.P., SOPLAY protocol - Physical Activity in Special Schools in Hong Kong (PASS-HK), 2008. |
| Researcher : McManus AM |
| Project Title: | Exercise testing in normal children and children with congenital heart disease |
| Investigator(s): | McManus AM, Yung TC |
| Department: | Phy Edu & Sports Sc Unit |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Children's Heart Foundation - General Award |
| Start Date: | 09/2000 |
| Abstract: |
| To establish norm values for C-P fitness; to establish normative values for C-V function during exercise in children; to assess the impact of PA and inactivity on C-P / C-V function. |
| Project Title: | Heart rate monitors as a motivational tool in physical education in Hong Kong |
| Investigator(s): | McManus AM, Masters RSW |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Polar Electro Qy - General Award |
| Start Date: | 01/2004 |
| Abstract: |
| The aim of this project is to use heart-rate monitors as a motivational tool to encourage in children the activity they need for a lifetime of health and well being. The first goal will be to establish whether heart-rate monitors, when used in conjunction with an educational heart health programme, i) have an immediate, short-term effect on markers of motivation of children to be active and ii) whether this results in increased physical activity. A second goal will be to establish whether points i) and ii) above are maintained in the long-term and whether this maintenance is dependent on continued use of the heart-rate monitors. A third goal will be to establish whether increased physical activity, if sustained in the long-term, is sufficient to accrue change in health-related outcomes, such as body composition and aerobic fitness. |
| Project Title: | The role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ in regulating spontaneous physical activity |
| Investigator(s): | McManus AM, Leung FCC |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 02/2005 |
| Abstract: |
| The study is designed to address the hypothesis that peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (PPAR-δ) inherently modulates spontaneous physical activity in the up-regulation of lipid catabolism and thermogenesis. Spontaneous non-exercise activity has been found to be an important compensatory mechanism against fat gain in humans who have been over-fed (1), however, how increases in non-exercise activity are regulated is unclear. Levine et al. (1) observed spontaneous movements in adults and evaluated what they termed the non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT). Their work demonstrated that individuals with high levels of NEAT engendered more energy expenditure and had decreased susceptibility to adiposity when compared with those individuals with lower levels, even when both groups were overfed. More recent evidence has demonstrated thyroid hormone plays a role in the alteration of NEAT (2), and tentative molecular pathways underpinning this relationship, including uncoupling proteins, have been suggested. PPAR-δ participates in the up-regulation of energy metabolism (3) and appears to induce pleiotropic responses in skeletal muscle which result in an improved metabolic profile and improved athletic performance (4,5). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors have been substantially implicated in relation to growth and obesity since synthetic PPAR-δ agonists revealed PPAR-δ's regulation proficiency on fatty acid oxidation and energy homeostasis (6). Alterations were subsequently detected in adipose tissue after targeted disruption of PPAR-δ in mouse (4). Transgenic over-expression of PPAR-δ in adipose tissue produces obese-resistant mice, even when fed with a high-fat diet. Recent findings showed that PPAR-δ mediated with transcriptional cofactor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma co-activator 1α (PGC-1α) can regulate muscle fiber specification. Muscle fiber type I was increased and mitochondrial biogenesis occurred after activation (4). The oxidatively optimised muscle improves endurance capacity, however, whether it results in increases in spontaneous activity is unknown. References 1. Levine JA, Eberhardt NL, Jensen MD. (1999) Role of nonexercise activity thermogenesis in resistance to fat gain in humans. Science, 283: 212-214. 2. Levine JA, Nygren J, Short KR, Sreekumaran Nair K. (2003) Effect of hyperthyroidism on spontaneous physical activity and energy expenditure in rates. Journal of Applied Physiology, 94: 165-170. 3. Wang YX, Lee CH, Tieo S, Yu RT, Ham J, Kang H, Evans RM. (2003) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ activates fat metabolism to prevent obesity. Cell, 113: 159-170. 4. Luquet S, Lopez-Soriano J, Holst D, Fredenrich A, Melki J, Rassoulzadegan M, Grimaldi PA. (2003) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ controls muscle development and oxidative capability. The FASEB Journal, 10.1096/fi.03-0269fje. 5. Wang TX, Zhang CL, Yu RT, Cho HK, Nelson MC, Bayuga-Ocampo CR, Ham J, Kang H, Evans RM. (2004) Regulation of muscle fibre type and running endurance by PPARδ. PLOS Biology, 2: e294 6. Peters JM. Lee SS. Li W. Ward JM. Gavrilova O. Everett C. Reitman ML. Hudson LD. Gonzalez FJ. (2000) Growth, adipose, brain, and skin alterations resulting from targeted disruption of the mouse peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor beta(delta). Molecular & Cellular Biology, 20: 5119-28. |
| Project Title: | NEAT in children |
| Investigator(s): | McManus AM, Yu CW |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 04/2007 |
| Abstract: |
| Hong Kong has not evaded the obesity epidemic. Over the last decade the prevalence of childhood obesity has increased by 60% [1,2]. Our recent work [3] confirms that the rate of obesity amongst Hong Kong children is continuing to rise, and that this is a significant health threat. Low levels of physical activity and high levels of screen-time have been shown to relate to the obesity epidemic in childhood [4]. Strategies targeting the prevention or reversal of childhood obesity have focused largely upon adding purposeful exercise or upon removal of screen entertainment and have not been particularly successful [5]. The low efficacy of purposeful exercise is perhaps not surprising because of the small contribution structured exercise makes to the variation in total daily energy expenditure [6]. Removal of screen entertainment has been shown to have short-term effectiveness, but long-term sustainability is doubtful [5]. In adults, Levine and Lanningham-Foster have demonstrated that increases in non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT) predict resistance to fat gain in non-obese individuals [7]. The key to NEAT is that it is unstructured and constitutes all the lifestyle movement patterns and postural adjustments we engage in as a matter of course, rather than the energy expended through purposeful or structured exercise. The role of NEAT in pediatric obesity has not been evaluated, but may prove to also play a key role in modulating weight gain in children. Finding innovative and creative ways to work NEAT into the otherwise sedentary lives of many children may provide the key to the future management of childhood obesity. In this application, we intend to investigate the NEAT component of physical activity in children using a unique instrument, the Physical Activity Monitoring System (PAMS), developed by our Mayo Clinic co-investigators [8,9]. Furthermore, we propose to refine and evaluate the acceptability of an activity-contingent gaming station, the ‘Walk and Game Station’ (WAGS), as a tool for increasing NEAT in children. Preliminary development of the WAGS has already begun and details of this pilot work are provided below. Using a commercially manufactured treadmill (Kettler XF-0082N) suitable for children and small enough for home use (W550 x L1260 x H1240mm), we devised an adaptation which allows screen-time, i.e., television and gaming media, to be conducted whilst walking. The adaptations we devised include: (i) Attachment of an LCD monitor (ii) Platform for mouse / media controls (iii) Re-positioning of the control panel (iv) Attachment pole for platform and control panel. We chose a non-tilt lightweight (40kg) motorized, foldable treadmill with a small (0.75HP) motor. Speed ranged from 0.8 to 8.0 km/hr. There are left and right hand support rails and a safety switch attached to the control panel. The height of the LCD monitor and platform were made adjustable to suit children of differing heights. This design was built by the University Technology Support Centre. We tested the prototype design, as well as habituation to the device during walking and when gaming during walking in 8 to 12 year olds. Twelve children volunteered to attend the laboratory with the written informed consent of parents. They completed a 12-minute habituation protocol, plus gaming session. The results of the trial showed that all children took less than one minute to achieve a steady gait walking at 1 km/hr. This speed is very slow and extremely easy for this age group to habituate to. Once they had completed 3 minutes at 1 km/hr, none had any difficulty walking steadily at either 1.2 or 1.8 km/hr. All the children could let go of the handrails during the second 3 minute bout. Only 2 of the children had to re-adjust their balance. When game score was compared between seated and walking play modes, we found no significant difference. This would indicate that the child’s gaming ability was unaffected by walking slowly. This preliminary work demonstrates the ease of habituation to the WAGS device in 8-12 year old children. However, we found a number of design features that need to be refined prior to further research. These are: (i) The screen height needs to have finer adjustment to ensure ergonomically safe posture (currently only two settings, and too low for most 10-12 year olds). Solution– make the side rails of the TM adjustable with pin or screw fittings (ii) The speed control needs to be restricted to a maximum speed of 2 km.h-1 (currently up to 8 km/hr). Solution - adjust control panel electronics. (iii) The control panel needs to brought to the front and placed at hand height (currently controlled only by getting off TM). Solution - make platform larger to accommodate control panel (iv) The platform for the mouse/ keyboard needs to be larger (too small for a keyboard). Solution - make platform larger to accommodate keyboard (v) The wires need to be tidied and out of sight (currently hanging from control panel). Solution - keep wires inside rails In summary, in this application we are proposing first to examine the components of NEAT in children. Our hypothesis in this first specific aim is that the EE associated with walking is the primary predictor of NEAT. Alternatively, other components of NEAT (fidgeting) may contribute more to EE than walking in children as compared to adults. Second, we will evaluate the acceptability of an innovative device, WAGS, that converts inactive screen habits (TV and gaming) into physical activity in lean and overweight children. Our first hypothesis for this second specific aim is that the game experience and enjoyment is the same on the WAGS compared to conventional seated gaming. Our second hypothesis is that overweight children will, when given a choice, spend less time utilizing the WAGS compared to lean children. References 1. Leung et al. Growth and nutrition in Hong Kong children. Sing. Paediatr. J, 38: 61-66, 1996. 2. Hong Kong Department of Health, Student Health Service, 1998-2005, personal communication. 3. Sung et al. Waist circumference and body mass index in Chinese children: cutoff values for predicting cardiovascular risk factors. Int J Obes. 2006 Sep 5. Epub ahead of print. 4. Reilly et al. Physical activity interventions in the prevention and treatment of paediatric obesity: systematic review and critical appraisal. Proceedings Nutr Soc, 62: 611-619, 2003. 5. Lobstein et al. Obesity in children and young people: a crisis in public health. Obes. Revs, 5 (Supp. 1): 4-85, 2004. 6. Donahoo et al. Variability in energy expenditure and its components. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab, 7: 599-605, 2004. 7. Levine et al. Inter-individual variation in Posture Allocation: Possible role in human obesity. Science. 28:584-586, 2005. 8. Levine et al. Tracmor system for measuring walking energy expenditure. Eur J Clin Nutr, 57: 1176-1180, 2003. 9. Levine et al. Validation of the tracmor triaxial accelerometer system for walking. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 33: 1593-1597, 2001. |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Chu Y.W., McManus A.M. and Yu C.W., Calibration Of The Rt3 Accelerometer For Ambulation And Nonambulation In Children, Medicine And Science In Sports And Exercise. U. S. A., Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007, 39: 2085-2091. |
| Chu Y.W., McManus A.M. and Hu Y., Short-Duration Patterning Of Physical Activity And Biomechanical Walking Efficiency In Lean And Overweight Children, The XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting Children And Exercise, 5-9 September 2007, Estonia. 2007. |
| Chu Y.W., McManus A.M. and Hu Y., Short-duration patterning of physical activity and biomechanical efficiency., In: Jürimäe T., Armstrong N., Jürimäe J., Children and Exercise XXIV.. 2008, 154-157. |
| Chu Y.W., McManus A.M. and Hu Y., Short-duration patterning of physical activity and biomechanical walking efficiency in lean and overweight children., Short-duration patterning of physical activity and biomechanical walking efficiency in lean and overweight children.. 2007. |
| Chu Y.W., McManus A.M. and Hu Y., The Young Investigator Award (Short-duration Patterning Of Physical Activity And Biomechanical Walking Efficiency In Lean And Overweight Children), The 24th Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting (Children And Exercise) XXIV, Tallinn, Estonia. 2007. |
| Eves F.F., Masters R.S.W., McManus A.M., Leung Y.Y., Wong P. and White M., Contextual barriers to lifestyle physical activity interventions in Hong Kong, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2008, 40: 965-971. |
| Eves F.F., Masters R.S.W. and McManus A.M., Development and validation of prompted stair climbing as an intervention to increase healthy lifestyle activity in Hong Kong, Health Research Symposium 2007: Building bridges between research, policy and practice. Hong Kong, Hong Kong Academy of Medicine, 2007. |
| McManus A.M., Yu C.W., Masters R.S.W. and Laukkenen R., Cardiac Autonomic Function: Associations With Cardiorespriatory Fitness In Children. , 12th Annual Congress Of The European College Of Sport Science, 11 - 14 July 2007, Jyväskylä, Finland. 2007. |
| McManus A.M., Physical activity – a neat solution to an impending crisis., Journal of Sports Science and Medicine. 2007, 6: 368-373. |
| McManus A.M., Masters R.S.W., Yu C.W., Sit H.P., Ling F.C.M. and Laukkenen R., Using Heart Rate Feedback To Enhance Physical Activity In Children, The Xxiv Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting Children And Exercise, Tallinn, Estonia. 2007. |
| McManus A.M., Masters R.S.W., Yu C.W., Sit H.P., Ling F.C.M. and Laukkenen R., Using heart rate feedback to enhance physical activity in children. , XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology, Tallinn, Estonia.. 2007. |
| McManus A.M., Masters R.S.W., Laukkanen R.M., Yu C.W., Sit H.P. and Ling F.C.M., Using heart-rate feedback to increase physical activity in children, Preventive Medicine. United States, Academic Press, 2008, 47: 402-408. |
| Mellecker R.R., McManus A.M., Levine J.A. and Lanningham-Foster L., The Design And Testing Of An Innovative Activity Contingent Multi-Media Tool, The XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting Children And Exercise, 5-9 September 2007, Estonia. 2007. |
| Mellecker R.R., McManus A.M., Levine J.A. and Lanningham-Foster L., The design and testing of an innovative activity contingent multi-media tool., XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting, Tallinn, Estonia.. 2007. |
| Sit H.P., McManus A.M., McKenzie T.L. and Lian J.M., Physical activity levels of children in special schools, Preventive Medicine. 2007, 45: 424-431. |
| Tse M.A., Masters R.S.W., McManus A.M. and Lo C.Y., The influence of trunk endurance training on postural fatigue during a simulated laparoscopic surgical task, 5th International Conference of the National Strength and Conditioning Association. Atlanta, Georgia, 2007. |
| Tse M.A., Masters R.S.W., McManus A.M., Lo C.Y. and Patil N.G., The influence of trunk endurance training on postural fatigue during laparoscopic surgery , Journal of Endourology. Mary Anne Liebert, 2008, 22: 1053-1058. |
| Yu C.W., Chook P., McManus A.M., Li A.M. and Sung R.Y.T., Effect Of Strength Training On Body Composition, Resting Blood Pressure, And Vascular Endothelial Function In Adolescence, The XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting Children And Exercise, 5-9 September 2007, Estonia. 2007. |
| Researcher : Mellecker RR |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Mellecker R.R., McManus A.M., Levine J.A. and Lanningham-Foster L., The Design And Testing Of An Innovative Activity Contingent Multi-Media Tool, The XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting Children And Exercise, 5-9 September 2007, Estonia. 2007. |
| Mellecker R.R., McManus A.M., Levine J.A. and Lanningham-Foster L., The design and testing of an innovative activity contingent multi-media tool., XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting, Tallinn, Estonia.. 2007. |
| Researcher : Mellecker RR |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Mellecker R.R., McManus A.M., Levine J.A. and Lanningham-Foster L., The Design And Testing Of An Innovative Activity Contingent Multi-Media Tool, The XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting Children And Exercise, 5-9 September 2007, Estonia. 2007. |
| Mellecker R.R., McManus A.M., Levine J.A. and Lanningham-Foster L., The design and testing of an innovative activity contingent multi-media tool., XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting, Tallinn, Estonia.. 2007. |
| Researcher : Poolton JM |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Masters R.S.W., Poolton J.M., Maxwell J.P. and Raab M., Implicit motor learning and complex decision making in time constrained environments., Journal of Motor Behavior. Washington DC, Heldref, 2008, 40: 71-79. |
| Masters R.S.W., Poolton J.M. and Maxwell J.P., Stable implicit motor processes despite aerobic locomotor fatigue, Consciousness and Cognition. Elsevier, 2008, 17: 335-338. |
| Poolton J.M., Masters R.S.W. and Maxwell J.P., Development of a culturally appropriate analogy for implicit motor learning in a Chinese population, The Sport Psychologist. Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics, 2007, 21: 375-382. |
| Poolton J.M., Maxwell J.P., Lam W.K. and Masters R.S.W., Distribution of attentional resources as a function of learning technique: Evidence from probe reaction times. , 12th European Congress of Sport Psychology, Halkidiki, Greece.. 2007. |
| Poolton J.M., Maxwell J.P., Masters R.S.W. and van der Kamp G.J., Moving with an external focus: Automaticity or simply less demanding?, Bewung and Training. 2007. |
| Researcher : Sit HP |
| Project Title: | Psychological Reversals of Children’s Game Participatory Behaviour |
| Investigator(s): | Sit HP, Masters RSW |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 06/2006 |
| Abstract: |
| Children and youth nowadays are being raised in a “cyberworld” where electronic media increasingly shapes their feelings, attitudes and behaviors (Strasburger, 1995). There is widespread concern that electronic media such as television viewing and computer and video game playing contributes to childhood obesity problems. Children and youth on average spend 32 minutes per day playing electronic games (Beentjes, Koolstra, & Marseille, 2001) and the amount of combined video and computer usage exceeds television viewing (Christakis, Ebel, Rivara, & Zimmerman, 2004). There is compelling evidence that the sedentary nature of electronic media is associated with high body fatness and therefore is an important behavioral risk factor for overweight children (Andersen, Crespo, Barlett, Cheskin, & Pratt, 1998; Eisenmann, Bartee & Wang, 2002; Tremblay & Willms, 2003). Other studies, however, report that such an association is weak (Marshall, Biddle, Gorely, Cameron, & Murdey, 2004) and that simply trying to minimize electronic media such as television viewing is not the best intervention strategy to reduce the sedentary behavior of children (Norman, Schmid, Sallis, Calfas, & Patrick, 2005). Numerous researchers have attempted to make use of different physical activity games as effective strategies to develop and encourage children to adopt a more active lifestyle (Kelder et al., 2005). To identify intervention strategies to promote physical activity in children, Finfgeld, Wongvatunyu, Conn, Grando, and Russell (2003) have recently addressed a need to apply Reversal Theory (Apter, 2001, 2005) as a new and emerging approach to understanding human behavior change within the public health field. This theory posits that human personality comprises some relatively fixed personality characteristics or motivational style profiles. These profiles consist of four pairs of motivational states (i.e., telic-paratelic, conformist-negativistic, autic-alloic, and mastery-sympathy), which exist and function in opposing ways. Motivational profiles indicate the amount of time an individual spends in one or its opposing state in a given dyad over time in a general life situation (i.e., metamotivational dominance) or in a particular situation such as sport and physical activity participation (i.e., situational state balance) (Apter, 2001). Previous research demonstrates a close link between one’s dominance or situational state balance and sport participation patterns and motivation (e.g., Kerr, Au, & Lindner, 2004, 2005; Lindner & Kerr, 2000, 2001; Sit & Lindner, 2005, in press). Individuals however will reverse between opposing states in a given dyad depending on the meanings and motives felt in different situations at different times. Reversals can be “triggered” by environmental stimuli (contingent reversals), frustration (not attaining satisfaction in a current state), and satiation (being in the same state for a period of time). A small number of studies demonstrate that psychological reversals occur between a pair of states and are more associated with external events and frustration than satiation (Kerr & Vlaswinkel, 1995; Males, Kerr, & Gerkovich, 1998). These studies however explore only the telic-paratelic dimension in adults during competitive sports event. Although later studies have identified the factors affecting reversals other than in a sports setting (Hudson & Bates, 2000) and examined different motivational profiles (Hudson & Walker, 2002), little is known about the motivational state patterns experienced by children and the factors affecting their reversals between each dyad on sedentary versus active-based game tasks. A question of whether such state patterns and mechanisms of reversals are associated with one’s situational state balance remains unanswered. The purpose of the proposed research is to examine children’s motivational state patterns and the factors affecting reversals between each pair of states on a game (chess) that can be sedentary or an active laboratory game task. Children’s situational state balance in relation to motivational state patterns and reversals during the game tasks will be identified. The work will also establish if there is any relationship between situational state balance and game participatory behavior in children. |
| Project Title: | Motivational correlates of physical activity and inactivity in children with disabilities |
| Investigator(s): | Sit HP, Cerin E |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 03/2007 |
| Abstract: |
| Regular physical activity is associated with reduced risk for secondary conditions in individuals with disabilities (Rimmer & Braddock, 2002). Healthy People 2010 suggests that the goal of developing an active lifestyle is one of ten leading health indicator areas and that individuals with disabilities are the target population (United States Department of Health and Human Service [USDHHS], 2000). There is limited information on the physical activity and health of children with disabilities, and research on this topic has been identified as an important public health priority (Cooper et al., 1999). Current data suggests that children with disabilities are insufficiently active for health purposes (Hogan, McLellan, & Bauman, 2000; Longmuir & Bar-Or, 2000; Sit, Lindner, & Sherrill, 2002). To maximize opportunities for empowerment and to minimize health risks associated with sedentary living among children with disabilities, there is a pressing need for education and health professionals to promote physical activity (Hutzler, & Sherrill, 1999), but more needs to be known about the factors influencing children’s activity and inactivity (Gordon-Larsen, McMurray, & Popkin, 2000). Recent physical activity literature and research indicate that, demographic/biological variables such as sex (male) and age (young) are the common correlates of children’s physical activity, whereas body weight or fatness is inconsistently negatively associated with physical activity. A comprehensive review of correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents by Sallis, Prochaska, and Taylor (1999) identifies six categories of potential correlates, of which psychological aspects are one of the strong correlates. Psychological or motivational variables such as intention to be active, perceived activity competence, and sensation seeking are strong correlates of children’s physical activity (Sallis et al., 1999). Contemporary researchers have attempted to understand individual’s motivation as one of the correlates of physical activity by using motivational frameworks within the physical activity and public health field (Finfgeld, Wongvatunyu, Conn, Grando, & Russell, 2003; Kerr, 1997, 1999, 2001; Kerr, Au, & Lindner, 2004, 2005). Apter (1989, 2001), for example, posits that personality comprises relatively fixed motivational styles. These styles represent individuals’ needs or experiences which are linked with their participatory behaviour (Apter, 2005). Previous research demonstrates a close link between one’s motivational styles and sport participatory behaviour. For example, individuals with serious-oriented and enjoyment-seeking styles show preference for and engagement in safe/endurance and risk/explosive sports, respectively (Chirivella & Martinez, 1994; Kerr, 1989; Svebak & Kerr, 1989). Other studies report that high sport participation frequency is associated with serious-oriented, self-centered, and competence styles (Lindner & Kerr, 1999, 2000, 2001). These studies mainly focus on structured physical activity and the association between one’s motivational styles and unstructured physical activity is uncertain. Recent efforts have been made to examine motivation for physical activity in Hong Kong youth by measuring their motivational styles based on different theoretical frameworks such as Apter’s (Sit & Lindner, 2005, 2006; revision being submitted). However, to date, no research has been conducted to examine motivational styles as a correlate of physical activity and inactivity in children with disabilities in and out of the Hong Kong school environment. The main aim of this work is to examine the motivational and demographic/biological correlates of physical activity and inactivity in children with disabilities. The secondary aim is to identify the key moderating variables underlying the relationships between children’s motivational styles and activity and inactivity. From a theoretical perspective, exploration of the link between motivational styles and physical (in)activity will provide important information regarding whether physical activity behaviours are related to an individual’s motivational framework. This work will add to the literature on motivation in the Hong Kong child population and lay a foundation for cross-cultural research. From a practical perspective, our understanding of the demographic/biological and motivational correlates of children’s physical (in)activity will provide physical educators and health professionals with insight into how and where to target effective interventions that motivate children with disabilities to be physically active. |
| List of Research Outputs |
| McKenzie T.L. and Sit H.P., SOPLAY protocol - Physical Activity in Special Schools in Hong Kong (PASS-HK), 2008. |
| McManus A.M., Masters R.S.W., Yu C.W., Sit H.P., Ling F.C.M. and Laukkenen R., Using Heart Rate Feedback To Enhance Physical Activity In Children, The Xxiv Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting Children And Exercise, Tallinn, Estonia. 2007. |
| McManus A.M., Masters R.S.W., Yu C.W., Sit H.P., Ling F.C.M. and Laukkenen R., Using heart rate feedback to enhance physical activity in children. , XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology, Tallinn, Estonia.. 2007. |
| McManus A.M., Masters R.S.W., Laukkanen R.M., Yu C.W., Sit H.P. and Ling F.C.M., Using heart-rate feedback to increase physical activity in children, Preventive Medicine. United States, Academic Press, 2008, 47: 402-408. |
| Sit H.P. and Lindner K.J., Achievement goal profiles, perceived ability and participation motivation for sport and physical activity, International Journal of Sport Psychology. 2007, 38: 283-303. |
| Sit H.P., Lindner K.J., Apter M.J., Michel G. and Mallows R., Further development of the Motivational Style Profile for Children, 13th International Conference on Reversal Theory, Wales, England. 2007. |
| Sit H.P., IFAPA/ICSSPE Scholarships, International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity and International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education. 2007. |
| Sit H.P., Kerr J.H. and Wong T.F., Motives for and barriers to physical activity participation in middle-aged Chinese women, Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2008, 9: 266-283. |
| Sit H.P. and Lau H.L., Physical activity levels and body image in relation to physical self-concept and global self-esteem of individuals with physical disabilities, 16th International Symposium for Adapted Physical Activity, São Paulo, Brazil. 2007. |
| Sit H.P., McManus A.M., McKenzie T.L. and Lian J.M., Physical activity levels of children in special schools, Preventive Medicine. 2007, 45: 424-431. |
| Sit H.P., Recognition from IFAPA President, International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity. 2007. |
| Researcher : Tse MA |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Tse M.A., Masters R.S.W., McManus A.M. and Lo C.Y., The influence of trunk endurance training on postural fatigue during a simulated laparoscopic surgical task, 5th International Conference of the National Strength and Conditioning Association. Atlanta, Georgia, 2007. |
| Tse M.A., Masters R.S.W., McManus A.M., Lo C.Y. and Patil N.G., The influence of trunk endurance training on postural fatigue during laparoscopic surgery , Journal of Endourology. Mary Anne Liebert, 2008, 22: 1053-1058. |
| Researcher : Wong P |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Eves F.F., Masters R.S.W., McManus A.M., Leung Y.Y., Wong P. and White M., Contextual barriers to lifestyle physical activity interventions in Hong Kong, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2008, 40: 965-971. |
| Researcher : Wong WL |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Wong W.L., Masters R.S.W., Maxwell J.P. and Abernethy A.B., Reinvestment and falls in community-dwelling older adults., Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2008, 22: 410-414. |
| Researcher : Yan J |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Yan J., Abernethy A.B. and Thomas J.R., Developmental and biomechanical characteristics of motor skill learning., In: R. Bartlett & Y. Hong (Eds.), Handbook of Biomechanics and Human Movement Science. Oxon, Routledge, 2008, 565-580. |
| Researcher : Yu CW |
| Project Title: | Immediate and long term blood pressure response to strength training in adolescents |
| Investigator(s): | Yu CW, McManus AM |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Small Project Funding |
| Start Date: | 12/2005 |
| Abstract: |
| Background The increased awareness of the numerous musculoskeletal and metabolic benefits of strength exercise has led to its popularity in adults in recent years. Evidence is now emerging that strength training also improves muscle strength in children and it may be undertaken to enhance their sport performance, rehabilitate injuries, prevent injuries and improve long-term health (AAP, 2001). We have recently shown that strength training not only improved body composition and blood lipid profile in obese children, but also boosted their confidence in coordination and endurance (Sung 2002). Cardiovascular responses of strength training have not been as extensively studied as aerobic exercises. Heavy strength training has been demonstrated to cause large increases in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure during the exercise (MacDougall 1985) and therefore may warrant caution, especially for those who are already hypertensive. However, this form of exercise does not cause chronically elevated resting blood pressure and notably it has been shown that 4 weeks or longer of progressive strength training reduces resting systolic and diastolic blood pressure in a recent meta-analysis. (Kelley 2000) Corresponding studies of the effect of strength training on blood pressure in children have been scant. A few studies in children using intraarterial catheter or sphygmomanometer measurement have shown that cardiovascular responses to acute strength training in children are similar to those in adults: both systolic and diastolic blood pressure rises, with limited changes in heart rate and cardiac output.(Nau 1990, Strong 1978, Laird 1979, Cassone 1981) To our knowledge no data are available on the long-term effect of progressive strength exercise training on blood pressure in children or adolescents. In order to advise children on taking up strength training, we need to have a better understanding of its acute and chronic cardiovascular effects. In this study, we propose to use a validated non-invasive, new device (Portapres) to measure the instantaneous change of blood pressure in children and adolescents who will paticipate in a 3-month strength training class. The accuracy of the Portapres device in measuring continuous, non-invasive blood pressure the finger during stress had been evaluated in patients during increasing levels of bicycle exercise, using simultaneously registered intra-aortic (aortic arch) pressure as a reference (Eckert & Horstkotte, 2002). We will also study the chronic effects of progressive strength training on blood pressure by monitoring their resting blood pressure before, after the 4-month training period, and at 10-month of the program. The purposes of this project are 1) to determine the immediate effect of strength training on blood pressure and 2) the long term effects of progressive strength training on resting blood pressure. References 1.American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness. Strength training by Children and adolescents. Pediatrics 2001;107:1470-1472. 2.Cassone R, Germano G, Dalmaso S, Corretti R, Astarita C, Chieco P, Corsi V. Evaluation of cardiac dynamics during isometric exercise in young female athletes: an echocardiographic study. J Sports Med 1981; 21:359-364. 3.Eckert S, Horstkotte D. Comparison of Portapres non-invasive blood pressure measurement in the finger with intra-aortic pressure measurement during incremental bicycle exercise. Blood Pressure Monitoring 2002; 7:179-83 4.Kelly GA, Kelley KS. Progressive resistance exercise and resting blood pressure- A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Hypertension 2000; 35:838-843. 5.Laird WP, Fixler DD, Huffiness FD. Cardiovascular response to isometric exercise in normal adolescents. Circulation 1979; 59:651-654. 6.Macdougall JD, Tuxen D, SaleDG, Moroz JR, Sutton JR. Arterial blood pressure response to heavy resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol 1985; 58:785-90. 7.Nau KL, Katch VL, Beekman RH, Dick M. Acute intraarterial blood pressure response to bench press weight lifting in children. Pediatr Exerc Science 1990; 2:37-45. 8.Strong WB, Miller MD, Striplin M, Salehbhai M. Blood pressure response to isometric and dynamic exercise in healthy black children. Am J Dis Child 1978; 132:587-591. 9.Sung RYT, Yu CW, Chang SKY, Mo SW, Woo KS, Lam CWK. Effects of dietary intervention and strength training on blood lipid level in obese children. Arch Dis Child 2002;86: 407-410. |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Chu Y.W., McManus A.M. and Yu C.W., Calibration Of The Rt3 Accelerometer For Ambulation And Nonambulation In Children, Medicine And Science In Sports And Exercise. U. S. A., Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007, 39: 2085-2091. |
| McManus A.M., Yu C.W., Masters R.S.W. and Laukkenen R., Cardiac Autonomic Function: Associations With Cardiorespriatory Fitness In Children. , 12th Annual Congress Of The European College Of Sport Science, 11 - 14 July 2007, Jyväskylä, Finland. 2007. |
| McManus A.M., Masters R.S.W., Yu C.W., Sit H.P., Ling F.C.M. and Laukkenen R., Using Heart Rate Feedback To Enhance Physical Activity In Children, The Xxiv Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting Children And Exercise, Tallinn, Estonia. 2007. |
| McManus A.M., Masters R.S.W., Yu C.W., Sit H.P., Ling F.C.M. and Laukkenen R., Using heart rate feedback to enhance physical activity in children. , XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology, Tallinn, Estonia.. 2007. |
| McManus A.M., Masters R.S.W., Laukkanen R.M., Yu C.W., Sit H.P. and Ling F.C.M., Using heart-rate feedback to increase physical activity in children, Preventive Medicine. United States, Academic Press, 2008, 47: 402-408. |
| Yu C.W., Chook P., McManus A.M., Li A.M. and Sung R.Y.T., Effect Of Strength Training On Body Composition, Resting Blood Pressure, And Vascular Endothelial Function In Adolescence, The XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting Children And Exercise, 5-9 September 2007, Estonia. 2007. |
| Yu C.W., Chook P., Li A.M. and Sung R.Y.T., Effect of strength training on body composition, resting blood pressure, and vascular endothelial function in adolescence. , XXIV Pediatric Work Physiology Meeting, Tallinn, Estonia.. 2007. |
| Yu C.W., Sung R.Y., Hau K.T., Lam P.K., Nelson E.A. and So R.C., The effect of diet and strength training on obese children's physical self-concept, The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness. Italy, Edizioni Minerva Medica, 2008, 48(1): 76-82. |
| Researcher : Zachry TL |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Abernethy A.B., Masters R.S.W. and Zachry T.L., Using Biomechanical feedback to enhance skill learning and performance., In: R. Bartlett & Y. Hong (Eds.), Handbook of Biomechanics and Human Movement Science. Oxon, Routledge, 2008, 581-593. |
| Researcher : van der Kamp GJ |
| Project Title: | On the development of implicit and explicit learning processes: Prism adaptation in 6- to 12- year-old children |
| Investigator(s): | van der Kamp GJ, Maxwell JP, Masters RSW |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 10/2005 |
| Abstract: |
| In recent years, the roles of explicit learning (ie. learning through the accumulation of declarative task relevant knowledge) and implicit learning processes (ie. enhancing skill through the use of non-declarative knowledge while concurrently preventing the accumulation of declarative knowledge) in the acquisition of perceptual-motor skills have been actively investigated in adult populations (see Masters, 2000; Willingham, 1998; Sun et al., 2005). However, when it comes to their roles during childhood there is a paucity of research (Van der Kamp et al., 2003). From an evolutionary perspective, it has been hypothesised that implicit learning processes are age-independent and that children must be capable of implicit learning, ‘because that is what they do’ (Reber, 1992, p. 40). It is thought that children from a very early age can learn implicitly and do so relatively independent of conscious attempts to acquire perceptual-motor skills and without much in the way of conscious knowledge of what they have, in fact, learned. However, without careful empirical research into the (changing) contributions of implicit and explicit processes in perceptual-motor learning during childhood such an argument, although perhaps intuitively appealing, is not entirely convincing. The proposed investigation will therefore examine age-differences in the roles of implicit and explicit processes in perceptual-motor skill learning in children between 5 and 12 years. In the adult literature, a primary means of demonstrating the distinction between implicit and explicit learning processing is the use of verbal protocols to assess the amount of explicit knowledge that is accumulated with improvements in perceptual-motor skill. Obviously, verbalization of explicit knowledge is problematic in children, and even not without contention in adults (Shanks & St. John, 1994). Consequently, a method is needed to assess the distinction between implicit and explicit processes that is not dependent on verbal reports on the side of the participants. In this respect, Willingham (1998) proposed that prism adaptation can serve as a vehicle for investigating the roles of implicit and explicit processes in perceptual-motor learning. He argued that the rate of adjustment in perceptual-motor behaviour during prism exposure is indicative of explicit processes, whereas, the negative-aftereffects after removal of the prisms reflect implicit, unconscious learning processes. The proposed investigation, therefore, explores the expediency of prism adaptation as a vehicle to examine implicit and explicit learning processes in primary school children. |
| Project Title: | Expertise in visual perception: Exploring the role of action |
| Investigator(s): | van der Kamp GJ, Abernethy AB, Jackson RC |
| Department: | Institute of Human Performance |
| Source(s) of Funding: | Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research |
| Start Date: | 03/2006 |
| Abstract: |
| Expertise in fast ball sports such as tennis is often characterized as a player seemingly having all the time in the world to make a return action despite the fact that the projectile travels between players in a very short time. It is the expert’s superiority to anticipate the opponent’s intentions that provides a crucial performance advantage over less skilled individuals. It is generally accepted that the expert’s skill in anticipating the opponent’s intentions is acquired through a very extensive experience of watching other players’ actions, which results in a better attunement to more proximal kinematic information produced early in the opponent’s action sequence (e.g. Abernethy & Russell, 1987; Abernethy & Zawi, 2005; Shim et al., 2005). The ‘perceptual experience hypothesis’ has proven very successful (cf. Williams & Davids, 1995). Yet, it is pertinent to note that it emphasizes one side of the coin only. That is, considerations of the role of action in perceptual anticipation have been conspicuously absent. The purpose of the proposed research is therefore to investigate the role of action in skilled perceptual anticipation. A relatively recent framework for the understanding of the relation between perception and action is the common coding hypothesis of Prinz (Prinz, 1997; Hommel et al., 2001). It holds that representations that allow one to perceive the intention of an action are the same as (or even identical to) representations that determine the actual production of an action. The core assumption is that these representations code the perceivable effects of actions. As a result, watching another individual performing an action triggers the perceiver’s representation for the production of that action. Evidence from neuroscience suggests that dedicated neurons may underlie this process. Fogassi et al. (2005), for example, showed that the same so-called ‘mirror’ neurons in the inferior parietal cortex of the monkey brain discharged when the monkeys produced an action as well as when they observed the same action done by the experimenter, but only when the action served the same goal. A similar mirror system may exist in corresponding areas of the human brain (Rizzolatti et al., 2001; Decety & Grezes, 1999). One consequence from the common coding hypothesis is that the perception of another individual’s intentions for action should be mediated by the perceiver’s capability to produce that action her- or himself. That is, the more the perceived action corresponds with the perceiver’s own action capabilities, the better the intentions of the currently perceived actions can be predicted. In recent years, several methods have been developed to test this conjecture. For example, Calvo-Merino et al. (2005) examined whether the perception of another individual’s action is mediated by the action expertise of the observer. They had non-skilled and expert dancers of different styles watch video clips of their own dance style versus the other style. fMRI-data revealed greater brain activity of the mirror system when dancers viewed video clips of the action that they had been trained in. In other words, while all the subjects saw the same actions, the mirror system responded quite differently according to whether they had acquired the actions or not (Calvo-Merino et al., 2005). Knoblich and Flach (2001) provided more direct evidence for the common coding hypothesis. They argued that the prediction of the intention of an action (or its future outcome) may be more accurate when one observes one’s own actions than when one observes another individual’s actions, because in the former case the system that produces the action is the same system that contributes to predicting the action outcome. To test this, Knoblich and Flach had participants view video clips displaying either themselves or somebody else throwing darts. Each clip started with the participant picking up the dart and terminated when the dart left the hand. The participants had to predict the future landing position of the dart. The predictions were more accurate when participants watched themselves than when they saw strangers throwing darts (see also Knoblich & Prinz, 2001; Grezes et al., 2004; Loula et al., 2005). Returning to perception in fast ball sports, we can now ask whether expert’s superiority in anticipating the opponent’s intentions is exclusively due to extensive, sometimes almost lifelong perceptual experience, or whether expertise in action production (i.e. the planning and execution of interceptive movements) in fast ball sports is an additional constraint on skilled perception. To this end, participants will watch video clips of tennis players hitting different strokes. The participants’ task will be to anticipate the action intention of the opponent hitter by initiating different types of stroke dependent on the predicted ball flight (see Shim et al., 2005). In both experiments, the degree of correspondence between the action system of the participant and the opponent hitter will be manipulated (i.e. self versus other, and left- versus right-hander). Following the common coding hypothesis, it is expected that the more the perceived action corresponds with the perceiver’s own action capabilities, the more accurate the intentions of the perceived actions will be predicted. |
| List of Research Outputs |
| Jackson R.C., van der Kamp G.J. and Abernethy A.B., Experts do, experts see? Common coding versus perceptual experience in anticipation skill., Proceedings of the annual Conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Niagra Falls. June 2008. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology.. 2008, 30 (Suppl.): S95. |
| Masters R.S.W., van der Kamp G.J. and Jackson R.C., Getting a bit on the side - penalty kick direction is influenced implicitly by the position of the goalkeeper, 12th European Congress of Sport Psychology. Halkidiki, Greece, 2007. |
| Poolton J.M., Maxwell J.P., Masters R.S.W. and van der Kamp G.J., Moving with an external focus: Automaticity or simply less demanding?, Bewung and Training. 2007. |
| van der Kamp G.J. and Masters R.S.W., The effect of Muller-Lyer illusions on far aiming tasks, 12th European Congress of Sport Psychology. Halkidiki, Greece, 2007. |